Teaching
The word “teach” comes from old english word “taecan” that is in turn derived from the old Teutonic “taikjan” means to show. The term teach is also related to “Token” i.e. a sign or symbol.
A descriptive definitio of teaching would have been somewhat different from that of today. A descriptive definition then would have been formulated from such nations as to teach is to give infornmation; to show a peson haw to do something; to give lesson in a subject. The conventional sense of teaching now a days is not entirly different.
Teachers need the ability to understand a subject well enough to convey its essence to a new generation of students.The goal is to establish a sound knowledge base on which students will be able to build as they are exposed to different life experiences. The passing of knowledge from generation to generation allows students to grow into useful members of society. Good teachers can translate information, good judgment, experience and wisdom into relevant knowledge that a student can understand and retain. As a profession, teaching has very high levels of Work-Related Stress (WRS) which are listed as amongst the highest of any profession in some countries, such as the United Kingdom. The degree of this problem is becoming increasingly recognized and support systems are put into place.
Nature of Teaching
Previously teaching meant nothing more than giving information and imparting knowledge. It was the time when teaching was regarded as a bipolar process: Teacher and the subject being its two poles.Various aspects of teaching are as under,
1.Teaching a triangular process.
Modren concept of the nature of teaching is that, it is a triangular or tripolar process. The three focal points of this process are the teacher, the child and the subject matter.
2.Teaching is giving information
3. Teaching is causing to learn
4. Teaching is stimulating learning
5. Teaching is givig guidance
6. Teaching is helping the child to make effective adjustment to his environment
7. Teaching is helping the child to develop emotional stability
Teaching will be inediquate if we do not train the emotions of the child and develp his emotional stability. Right actions spring from right feelings. The child should feel a sense of security, which is possible in atmosphere of love and freedom. The teacher should have encouraging and sympathetic attitude towards his pupils.
Pedagogy and teaching
In education, teachers facilitate student learning, often in a school or academy or perhaps in another environment such as outdoors. A teacher who teaches on an individual basis may be described as a tutor.
The objective is typically a course of study, lesson plan, or a practical skill, including learning and thinking skills. The different ways to teach are often referred to as the teacher's pedagogy. When deciding what teaching method to use, a teacher will need to consider students' background knowledge, environment, and their learning objectives. A teacher may follow standardized curricula as determined by the relevant authority. The teacher may interact with students of different ages, from infants to adults, students with different abilities and students with learning disabilities.
Instruction
An instruction is a form of communicated information that is both command and explanation for how an action, behavior, method, or task is to be begun, completed, conducted, or executed.
Instruction may also refer to:
Teaching – teachers are also called instructors.
Sebayt – a work of the ancient Egyptian didactic literature aiming to teach ethical behaviour.
Instruction (computer science) – a single operation of a processor within a computer architecture.
In the context of French law (or inquisitorial systems based on France's), the instruction is the pre-trial phase of a criminal investigation that is led by a judge. More generally, it refers to phases of judicial or administrative proceedings where a request is investigated, and information pertaining to it is collected, before a final decision is made.
Instruction was the name of a rock band from New York City
Education
“Education is the act, process or art of impating knowledge and skill: Instruction, pedagogy, schooling , teaching, training, tution and tutoring.”
A programme of Instruction of specified kind or level: Driver Education: A College Education.
The field of study i.e. concerned with the pedagogy of teaching and learning.
Education has much broader and deeper meaning for our way of living, At the center of their new educational demands stands the teaching profession which is being challenged to meet the needs of our own people for a far better knowledge and understanding of others.
Education systems
Schooling simply occurs when society or a group or class or an individual designs a curriculum to educate people, usually the young. Schooling can become systematic and thorough. Sometimes education systems can be used to promote doctrines or ideals as well as knowledge, which is known as social engineering. This can lead to political abuse of the system, particularly in totalitarian states and government.
Primary education
Primary or elementary education consists of the first years of formal, structured education that occur during childhood..
Secondary education
In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education consists of the second years of formal education that occur during adolescence. It is characterised by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors to the optional, selective tertiary, "post-secondary", or "higher" education (e.g., university, vocational school) for adults.
Higher education
Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage or post secondary education, often known as academia, is the non-compulsory educational level following the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school, secondary school, or gymnasium. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions that provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions.Tertiary education generally results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.
Adult education
Lifelong, or adult, education has become widespread in many countries. However, education is still seen by many as something aimed at children, and adult education is often branded as adult learning or lifelong learning. Adult education takes on many forms, from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning.
Lending libraries provide inexpensive informal access to books and other self-instructional materials. The rise in computer ownership and internet access has given both adults and children greater access to both formal and informal education. There are three Modes of Education. 1-formal education, 2-informal education , 3-Non formal education.
1.Formal Education: The hierarchically structured, chronologically graded education system, running from primary school through the university and including, in addition to general academic studies, a variety of specialized programs and institutions for full time technical and professional training.
2.Informal Education: The truly lifelong process whereby every individual acquires attitude, values, skills and knowledge form daily experience and the educative influences and resources in his or her environment from family and neighbors, from work and play, from the market place the library and the mass media.
3.Non-Formal Education: Any organized educational activity outside the established formal system- whether operating separately or as an important feature of some broader activity that is intended to serve identifiable learning clienteles and learning objectives.
Alternative education
Alternative education, also known as non-traditional education or educational alternative, is a broad term which may be used to refer to all forms of education outside of traditional education (for all age groups and levels of education). This may include both forms of education designed for students with special needs (ranging from teenage pregnancy to intellectual disability) and forms of education designed for a general audience which employ alternative educational philosophies and/or methods.
Learning.
Learning is the acquisition and development of memories and behaviors, including skills, knowledge, understanding, values, and wisdom. It is the product of experience and the goal of education. Learning ranges from simple forms of learning such as habituation and classical conditioning seen in many animal species, to more complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals.
Contents of Learning
Types of learning
1.Simple non-associative learning
Habituation
Sensitization
2.Associative learning
Operant conditioning
Classical conditioning
3.Imprinting
4.Observational learning
5.Play
6.Multimedia learning
7.Electronic learning
Types of learning
1.Simple non-associative learning
(I)Habituation
In psychology, habituation is an example of non-associative learning in which there is a progressive diminution of behavioral response probability with repetition of a stimulus. It is another form of integration. An animal first responds to a stimulus, but if it is neither rewarding nor harmful the animal reduces subsequent responses. One example of this can be seen in small song birds - if a stuffed owl (or similar predator) is put into the cage, the birds initially react to it as though it were a real predator. Soon the birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed owl is introduced (or the same one removed and re-introduced), the birds react to it as though it were a predator, showing that it is only a very specific stimulus that is habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in one place). Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal, including the large protozoan Stentor coeruleus.
(II)Sensitization
Sensitization is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus (Bell et al., 1995). An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that will occur if a person rubs his arm continuously. After a while, this stimulation will create a warm sensation that will eventually turn painful. The pain is the result of the progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves warning the person that the stimulation is harmful. Sensitization is thought to underlie both adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism.
2.Associative learning
(I)Operant conditioning
The term Operant is used becase the behavior activity operates on. OR Has an effect on the environment for laerning to occur. For example….teaching animals to dance, play ping pong etc by systematically rewarding them for desired behaviours. The difference between classical and operant conditioning is that
i) Operant conditioning reinforces responces that are pressumed to be under the conscious control of thr individual while, classical conditionig reinforces involuntary responses.
ii) Classical responses occur as a result of stimuli that occur prior to the response, whereas operant responses are reinforcement by consequences that occur after the behavior.
(II)Classical conditioning
It occurs when a stimulus that elicits (draw out, evoke) a respose, is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicite (draw out, evoke) a response in its own. Over time the second stimulus causes a similar response because it is associated with the first stimulus. For example he noticed that his dogs recreated at the sight of food at feeding time. Pavlove called food as unconditioned stimulus and secretion of saliva as an unconditioned respose. When pavlove paired a neutral stimulus (A bell) with an unconditioned respose, with the passage of time his dogs learned to salivate at the sound of bell. This bell is conditioned stimulus and salivation is a conditioned response.
3.Imprinting
Imprinting is the term used in psychology and ethology to describe any kind of phase-sensitive learning (learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage) that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior. It was first used to describe situations in which an animal or person learns the characteristics of some stimulus, which is therefore said to be "imprinted" onto the subject.
4.Observational learning
The most basic learning process is imitation; one's personal repetition of an observed process, such as a smile. Thus an imitation will take one's time (attention to the details), space (a location for learning), skills (or practice), and other resources (for example, a protected area). Through copying, most infants learn how to hunt (i.e., direct one's attention), feed and perform most basic tasks necessary for survival.
5.Play
Play generally describes behavior which has no particular end in itself, but improves performance in similar situations in the future. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is mostly limited to mammals and birds. Cats are known to play with a ball of string when young, which gives them experience with catching prey. Besides inanimate objects, animals may play with other members of their own species or other animals, such as orcas playing with seals they have caught. Play involves a significant cost to animals, such as increased vulnerability to predators and the risk or injury and possibly infection. It also consumes energy, so there must be significant benefits associated with play for it to have evolved. Play is generally seen in younger animals, suggesting a link with learning. However, it may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning, for example improving physical fitness.
6.Multimedia learning
The learning associated with multimedia learning environments (Mayer, 2001). This type of learning relies of dual-coding theory (Paivio, 1971).
7.Electronic learning
Electronic learning or E-learning is a general term used to refer to computer-enhanced learning.
2.3.(a)Phases of Teaching
We can categorize teaching phases as under
1. Introduction i.e. Statement of aims and objectives
· Linkage
· Motivation
· objectives
2. Development-I (Examination Phase)
· Attend
· Classify
· Label
Development-II (Interpretation Phase)
· Identify
· Explain
· Conclude
Development-III (Application Phase)
· Practice
· Encouragement
· Correction
3. Consolidation Phase (Review of contents)
· Reinforce
· Challenge
· Assess
· Mastery
4. Evaluation Phase
· Questions
· Evaluation sheet
· Produce linkage to next lesson
2.3.(b)Phases of Instruction
Many current instructional models suggest that the most effective learning products or environments are those that are problems-centered and involve the students in four distinct phases of learning.
1. problem centered instruction
2. activation or prior experience
3. demonstration of skills
4. application of skills and
5. Integration of these skills in to real world activities.
Problem centered instructions
Learning is promoted when learners are engaged in solving real world problems by
· Showing tasks: to compete for a problem
· Task level: Most cognitive process
· Progression i.e. solving a progression of problems that are explicitly compare to one another.
1. Activation Phase
Learning is promoted when previous experience is activated and new experiences provide foundation and organization of new knowledge.
2. Demonstration Phase
Demonstration means telling what is to be learned? It depends upon
1. Consistency of demonstration by
· Examples for concepts
· Procedures
· Modeling behavior
· Visualizations for processes
2. Learner guidance by
· Relevant information
· Multiple representations
· Comparative demonstrations
3. Providing relevant media i.e. Increasing cognitive load
3. Application Phase
Learning is promoted when the learners are required to use their new knowledge to solve problems by
· Practice consistency using
1. different information
2. different paths of practice
3. different kinds of practice
· Diminishing coaching i.e. Learning is promoted when learners are guided in their problems solving by appropriate feed back and coaching, including error dictation and correction, and when this coaching is gradually withdrawn.
· Varied problems i.e. learning is promoted when learners are required to solve a sequence of varied problems.
4. Integration Phase
Learning is promoted when learners are encouraged to integrate (Transfer) the new knowledge or skill in to their everyday life using,
· Watch me i.e. learning is promoted when learners are given an opportunity to publicly demonstrate their new knowledge or skill.
· Reflection i.e. learning is promoted when learners can reflect on, discuss, and defend their new knowledge or skill.
· Creation i.e. learning is promoted when learners can create, invent, and explore new and personal ways to use their new knowledge or skill.
2.4.Principles and Maxims of Teaching
The maxims of teachings mean principals of teaching. It can be discussed in following points.
1. Proceed from known to unknown.
It as said that the old knowledge serves as a book from which the new can be hanged, so that the new knowledge may be acceptable.
2. Proceed from analysis to synthesis
Analysis consists in talking a thing apart in to its elements. Synthesis is the complement of analysis.
3.Proceed from simple to complex
The teacher should keep up the interest of the pupils in the lessons by presenting easier and simpler materials to be followed latter by complex and difficult materials.
4.Proceed from whole to part
Whole is more meaningful to the child than to learning of the part. The part approach to learning tends to ignore needs. Learners have to develop some kinds of a frame of reference that will help them to relate one aspect of what is to be learned.
5.Proceed from concrete to abstract
It is very important for the child to be able to abstract idea. To achieve this purpose, we should approach child via concrete objects, activating and examples.
6. Proceed from the particular to the general
Particular facts and examples should be presented to children before giving them general rules and principles, as they are easier to follow. The process of induction is easier to understand than the so called fact.
7. Proceed from Empirical to Rational
It can further be subdivided in to
1. Obstructional i.e Problematic in observation and learning.
2. Argumentive i.e. logical reasoning to solve problems.
8. Proceed from psychological to logical
We should proceed teaching by taking in to consideration the child’s interests, needs and mental makeup.
9.Proceed from the actual to the representative
The child learns more quickly from the actual and real objects. Whenever possible the teacher should show the real object. This is particularly indeed, in the earlier classes, as the information of small children is limited, for them it is always safe to proceed from concrete to abstract, from actual to representative, from near to distant.
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