Instructional strategies
4.1: Meaning of Method, Tactic, Strategy and Technique
Method
1. An orderly procedure or process; regular manner of doing anything; hence, manner; way; mode; as, a method of teaching languages; a method of improving the mind.
2. Orderly arrangement, elucidation, development, or classification; clear and lucid exhibition; systematic arrangement peculiar to an individual.
3. Classification; a mode or system of classifying natural objects according to certain common characteristics; as, the method of Theophrastus; the method of Ray; the Linnaean method.
Tactic
A tactic is a conceptual action used by a military unit of no larger than a division to implement a specific mission and achieve a specific objective, or to advance toward a specific goal. A tactic is implemented as one or more tasks. These concepts can be defined as a hierarchy:
Strategy
According to George Steiner
1. Strategy refers to basic directional decisions, that is, to purposes and missions.
2. Strategy consists of the important actions necessary to realize these directions.
3. Strategy answers the question: What should the organization be doing?
4. Strategy answers the question: What are the ends we seek and how should we achieve them?
Strategy According to Henry Mintzberg
1. Strategy is a pattern in actions over time; for example, a company that regularly markets very expensive products is using a "high end" strategy.
2. Strategy is position; that is, it reflects decisions to offer particular products or services in particular markets.
3. Strategy is perspective, that is, vision and direction.
Mintzberg argues that strategy emerges over time as intentions collide with and accommodate a changing reality. Thus, one might start with a perspective and conclude that it calls for a certain position, which is to be achieved by way of a carefully crafted plan, with the eventual outcome and strategy reflected in a pattern evident in decisions and actions over time. This pattern in decisions and actions defines what Mintzberg called "realized" or emergent strategy.
Strategy According to Kenneth Andrews
"Strategy is the pattern of decisions that determines and reveals its objectives, purposes, or goals, produces the principal policies and plans for achieving those goals”.
What Is Strategy?
What, then, is strategy? Is it a plan? Does it refer to how we will obtain the ends we seek? Is it a position taken? Just as military forces might take the high ground prior to engaging the enemy; might a business take the position of low-cost provider? Or does strategy refer to perspective, to the view one takes of matters, and to the purposes, directions, decisions and actions stemming from this view? Lastly, does strategy refer to a pattern in our decisions and actions?
Strategy is all these—it is perspective, position, plan, and pattern. Strategy is the bridge between policy or high-order goals on the one hand and tactics or concrete actions on the other. Strategy and tactics together straddle the gap between ends and means. In short, strategy is a term that refers to a complex web of thoughts, ideas, insights, experiences, goals, expertise, memories, perceptions, and expectations that provides general guidance for specific actions in pursuit of particular ends.
Strategy versus Tactics
The terms tactics and strategy are often confused: tactics are the actual means used to gain an objective, while strategy is the overall campaign plan, which may involve complex operational patterns activity and decision-making that lead to tactical execution.
Technique
A technique is a procedure used to accomplish a specific activity or task using,
1.Technology, the study of or a collection of techniques
2.Skill, the ability to perform a task
3.Scientific technique, any systematic method to obtain information of a scientific nature
4.2:Types of Teaching Strategies.
A teacher organises his activities of teaching to bring about the desireable change in the behaviour of the learner.Thus the stuendts are forced to achieve learning objectives. Most of the teaching strategies are selected to be used by students with their full capacity.They attempt to achieve maximum students performance.Therefore, it is essential to know about different teaching strategies in terms of their affectiveness in achieving different kinds of learing objectives,These are the means for realizing the learining objectives. Teaching strategies can be classified under the following two heads.
(A) Autocratic Style.
The autocratic style of teaching strategies are traditional.These strategies achieve different objectives more than preissive style of teaching.The autocratic style is content centered and teacher remains more active and students are like passive listeners.The autocratic style realize cognitive objectives while prremissive teaching tend to achive effective objectives.
The strategies do not consider the students abilities, intersts and personalitiy of the learner.There is no freedom for the learner in teaching process.These are highly subjective and conventional style of teaching stratigies. A detailed description of such stratigies have been given below:
It involves the following strategies
(1). Lecture
It is the oldest teching method in our schools. It may be used to achieve the cognitive and effective objective and to realize the highest order of cognitive objective.
Lecture lays emphasis on the presentation of the content.Teacher is more active and students are more passive participants but he uses question answe technique to keep them attentive in the class.Teacher controls and plans for all the students acts.
Advantages of Lecture style.
1. The habit of concentration may be develpped among these students.
2. It is an economical teaching stratigy.
3. Very high order of the cognitive objectives may be achieved.
4. The personality of teacher influences the learner personality.
5. Teacher can employee his full verbal communications.
6. Provides opportunity to the teacher to use different type of teaching aids.
Disadvantages of lecture style.
1. Gives more emphasis on teacher presentaiton and has no place for the participaton of the students.
2. Cannot be applied to elementary classes.
3. Teacher activities are dominated and students abilities interests and learning are ignored.
4. It is not based upon the prinicipal of psychology i.e. individual differences are not considred.
5. It can not be used to achive psychomotor objectives and highest order of effective objectives.
6. usually teacher deviates from the subject contents and teaching points.
Suggestions.
1. The language of the lecture should be simple, easy & comprehensive.
2. The developing questions should be asked to make the students attentive in the class.
3. The students remian in active and passive participants, hence the teachers uses humour to release their tention.
4. Lecture style should be used from secondary level to upward classes.
5. Teacher should use teaching aids like maps, charts, diagrams,picturs etc.
(2) Lesson demonstration
The lesson demonstration stratigy is a traditional class room method which is used in technical schools and training colleges.It is widely used by teacher- educators during teaching practice. As a technique it is less autocratic than a lecture but considerably permissive than a discussion.
Focus:It is used for achieving the psycomotor and cognitive objectives.
Structure:It consists of three successive steps:
· Introduction i.e. aims are stated
· Development i.e. question answer and other class activities
· Integration i.e lesson material is rehearsed, revised & evaluated.
Limitation.
1. It does not provide an opportunity to develop originality of pupil teachers.They try to imitate the model lessons in their teaching.
2. Teachers educator can not demonstrate the lesson correctly and effectively.
Suggestions:
· An efective or skilled teachers should demonstrate the lesson.
· The pupil teachers should be given an opportunity to seek the clarification of their problems.
· The lesson demonstration shuld be followed by discussion.
· The lesson demonstration shuld be used as a supplementary technique in simmulated social skill training.
(3) Tutorials
This strategy is considered both autocratic and permissive type of teaching.It is generally considred to be one of the most valuable educational experiences.Tutorial are highly indivualized type of teaching.
Focus: It provides remedial help to the learner.The cognitive and effective objective may be achieved by the tuitorials.
Structure: Tutorial classes are found by considering the homogenius type of difficulties of the learner.The small homogenus is assigend by one teacher.He has to give remedial help to the learner.Tutorial is a follow up programme.
Advantages.
· It is valuable teaching stratigy from individual differnces pont of view.
· Provides an opportunity to organise remedial teaching.
· Provides full freedom to the learner to seek the clarification of their problems and can raise their level of performance.
Disadvantages:
· One teacher can not solve the difficulties related to different subjects and different students.
· The teacher becomes bias and does nots take interest in the problems of each students.
· Usually some students dominate the tutorial groups and all students can get equal opportunity to participate.
· Tutorial group develop the feeling of jealous.
Suggestions:
· Tutorial group should be made of some background, abilities & entering behavours.
· Teachers should have very objective dealing with the students,
· Teacher should provide the remedial help in the subject of his own interst.
· Tutorial group should be formed on the basis of students difficulties in differtent subjects.
· Teacher shuld encouraged every students to place his difficulties.
(4) Programmed instructions:
It is a new stratigy of teaching and has revelutionized teaching and learning, also known as individualized instructions.Programmed instructions is an autocratic style of teaching strategy.The responces of the learaned or control by the programmer.The learner does not get freedom to respond, but if provides an opportunity to each learner to pace according to his own capacity and ability.
Focus: It aims to bring about desirabel change in learners behaviour.The modificaiton o the behavour is the main focus of this strategy.It has been designed to achieve the cognitive objectives.
Structure:The content is presented in two small steps.There is gap to be filled by the learner during his course of study.The response is the new knowledge of result or new behavour of the learner.The learner shuld confirm his own response by comparing it with a given correct response.The confirmaiton of his correctness of his response provides him reinformcement to go towards the next step.
How to design programmed instructions?
There are five fundamental psychological principles to design a programmed instructions.
1. Principle of small steps,
2. Principle of active rsponding
3. Principle of immediate confirmation
4. Principle of self pacing
5. Principle of students testing.
Advatages.
· Students learns by doing so remains active.
· Reinforcement is provided at each correct response
· Used as a remedial isntructions
· The students learn to this strategy without physical presence of a teacher.
· The learner makes minimnum errors in the learinign process.
Disadvantages:
· It is very difficult to develop a good programmed instructions material.
· It is very time consuming and costly process
· Can only be used to achieve cognitive objectives,
· It is a controlled instructions, hence it doesnot proved the sitaution to develop creativity of the learner.
Suggestions.
· It should be used to achieve the cognitive objective.
· It should be employed for more conceptual concept
· Should be used to remove difficulties of a learner
· It is more useful and effective for secondary schools.
(B) Permissive Style:
The permissive style of teaching strategies is based upon “ Modern theory or generalization of task and releationship centered” Permissive style seems to be less conventional. It is mainly child center, content is largely determind by the pupils.The effective objective are mainly achieved by permissive style strategies.These stratigies creat situations for students and teacher interaction and both remain active in teaching.Teaching is organized by considering students interests, ability and learning.It encourages the creativeity of learners. It includes the following strategies
(1) Question answer strategy
The socratic method is known as question anwser matheod .It is developed by the famous philosopher Socrates.He assumed that all knowledge within the learner and teacher has to unfold it. He further assumed that teacher should present the subject method in such a way that learner recognized the truth and he can idetify himself with it.
(2)Heuristics strategy
The term heuristics has been borrowed from the world “Heurises”. It means to discover or investigate. The purpose of communication is to develop the tendency of investigation. Polo and Danker (1945) have mentioned this method in their article entitled “ The Problem Solving”. The strategy involves trial and error invention techniques. This strategy is very economical and speedy. It requires more logical and imaginative thinking in formulating the number of tentative solutions for the problems.
Structure: A problem is placed before the learners and they attempt to eek the solutions of the problems. The learners get full freedom of working and thing . the number of devices are used for solving the problem. The problem is analysed in possible elements. The learners discuss themselves about the problem. The teachr encourages the students to work in laboratory and to do study in the library.
Advanteges:
· It develops the scientific attitude of learner and tendency of observation
· It involves the feelings of self confidence
· The teacher provides the individual guidance to the learner
· The teacher remains active
· It develops logical and imaginative thinking among the learner
· It is based upon psychological principles of learning
· It creates the situation for the divergent thinking
Disadvantages:
· It can not be used for lower classes
· Very time consuming strategy
· It can not be used for dull and poor students even for higher classes
· It can be employed for a large number of students
(3) Project strategy
It is a new teaching strategy and it has been evolved as a result of social tendency of education, the advocates are of this opinion that education should be related to life situation. It is experience centered teaching study. The main focus of this strategy is to socialize a child.
Objectives
It is used to achieve cognitive and effective objectives. The main focus is to socialize a child and to develop the ability of problem solving.
Structure
The teacher places the real problems related to life situations and learner realizes its utility in his life. The learner prepares a plan for solving the problems, the students several information for solving the problems. The teacher’s job is to provide guidance. The students themselves make efforts to seek solutions of the problems by studding the material.
Types of project:
1. Constructive i.e. learner has to complete a certain task.
2. Artistic i.e. developing the esthetic taste of the learner.
3. Problems centered i.e. a problems is presented before the learner and he has to seek the solution of the problem.
4. Group practice i.e. a task is assigned in which group work is required to complete.
Procedure of project strategy.
Usually 6 steps are followed in each type of project strategy.
Step One: to identify a problem related to life situation of the learner.
Step Two: to select and define the problem
Step three: to prepare a plan for finding out the solution of the problem.
Step four: to implement the plan
Step five: to evaluate the work ability of the project plan
Step Six: to prepare a record of the project
(4) Review strategy
It is more permissive style of permissive strategy. It develops the ability of critical thinking among the students. The students remain more active in this strategy and the teacher provides guidance for reviewing the books and reference books after introducing the topic to them. Every student is assigned to review and independent topic. Some time one topic is assigned to a group of students. In this strategy the students has to perform much library work and are very critical about knowledge of a topic gathered from various sources. The strategy requires self motivation and involvement in the subject matter. The students should have the patience in searching the topic from available literature and should have the feeling of cooperation to help others in this regard.
Types of review:
1. Oral review i.e. usually lecture, paper, books are reviewed orally.
2. Written review: i.e. contents, ideas and books are reviewed in written form
3. Problem review: i.e. generally this type of review is done in research studies to review the problems.
4. Simple review: i.e. in this type of review the students are asked to review a lesson, story, drama etc.
(5) Group discussion
There is no comprehensive definition of group discussion but it is considered as democratic teaching study. The pupils are more active in it. Teacher’s job is to supervise and to provide guidance to students’ activity. It is student centered teaching study. It may be of two types:
1. By the teacher i.e. this type of discussion is more autocratic style
2. By the students i.e. in this situation discussion is more permissive or democratic in style.
Structure: The group discussion organized in two forms, formally and informally. In formal group discussion, proper schedule is prepared and certain rules are observed. The group discussion is organized on any educational problem. Teacher act as the leader of the group but in the absence of a teacher students have to select a student who acts as a leader of the e group, who prepares a plan for discussion. In the group discussion, due weightage is given to the answers and questions of the students.
(6) Role playing
It is also termed as stimulated social skill, training or teaching. It is a better strategy than lesson demonstration, because it provides a situation for the learner to perform the task. It is dramatic strategy. The student-teacher has to play the role of student and teacher. The student-teacher has to teach a small lesson to his colleagues. Assuming them as secondary class students. They have to act as students. Every student has to teach a lesson in a rotation. The teaching is followed by discussion and suggestion which are given for the modification and improvement of behavior.
(7) Assignment
The assignment is also considered as one of the teaching strategies. It is most frequently used by teachers in teaching every subject that provides the situation for the assimilation of the content. It is based upon the psychological learning principles.
(8) Discovery
J.S Burner has developed this teaching strategy. The discovery and heuristics are used for the same meaning but they are quite different from one another. The discovery strategy is used for teaching social subjects whereas heuristic strategy is meant for teaching science subjects. The heuristic is used to provide the knowledge concepts where as discovery is used for the historical facts. The students are asked to prepare a brief note about a historical place which he has visited in educational excursion.
(9) Computer assisted instructions
In the beginning the computer service has been utilized in administration and industry. But computer has also influenced the educational process. It can be used effectively for imparting more information and facts to the students according to their abilities. Used to achieve cognitive objectives. The teaching process has been organized in to two steps
I) Pre-tutorial Phase II) Tutorial Phase
The main objective of pre-tutorial phase is that a particular student can achieve the objectives by using a specific type of instruction. The purpose of tutorial phase is to select appropriate instruction and to present it before the learner. It also controls the learner responses. The computer selects the suitable instruction on the basis of learners entering behavior. There may be three possibilities in selecting the instruction.
· The instruction can be selected
· More than one instruction may be selected
· No instruction can be selected and computer will reject the learner which shows
1. The learner does not possess the required entering behavior.
2. The learner possess the more than the entering behavior.
When more than one instruction is available then more time saving instruction can be used. When computer does not select any instruction it shows that the learner does not have sufficient knowledge to enter a program.
Advantages:
· Highly individualized teaching and instruction, 50 instructions of different types can be provided to fifty different students.
· Provides immediate reinforcement to learner
· Involves psychological principles of learning.
(10) Brain storming
It is completely permissive style of teaching based on assumption that student can learn better in a group rather than individual study. It’s a problem centered strategy. Used to achieve high order cognitive and effective objectives.
(11) Independent study
it is also as project work. It helps in developing student’s initiative, responsibility, and understanding for what they study. This strategy is more useful for a training program. Used to achieve high order cognitive and effective objectives. It is based on the following principles.
· Freedom of work and reading
· Self study
· Individual difference
· Involvement in the task
(12) Leaderless group
The main purpose of this strategy is to encourage students to solve problems by their own mutual participation, criticism and suggestions in the absence of teacher. It offers following advantages to the student.
· It reduces the tension of the learners
· Encourages students to solve their problems of their own.
· Criticism and appreciation provides feedback to the learner.
(13) Sensitivity training or T-Group
It is difficult to define it as a discussion method, because it employs a variety of techniques. It is also termed as T-group. It has the following objectives
· To develop the ability, how others react to one’s own behavior.
· To increase the ability to observe the state of relationship between others.
· To enhance the ability to carry out skillfully required by the situation.
Structure: There is no fixed schedule of meeting the group for discussion. Usually groups meet once a week for about three months. The role of trainer is to point out an observation what is happening inn the group? The learners have to discuss their own problems which they are facing in their actual task. The learners can discuss their own experiences about these problems.
Advantages:
1. It increases the ability to diagnose weakness of the self and others in the group
2. It offers great openness, receptivity and tolerance of difference
3. It develops operational skill in interpersonal relationship and feeling of cooperation.
4. It is considered an important strategy for social development.
4.3:Approaches of Instructional strategies
Scaffolding
It is a temporary framework used to support people and material in the construction and repair of buildings. The term scaffolding was developed as a metaphor to describe the type of assistance offered by a teacher to support learning. In the process of scaffolding, the teacher helps the students to master a task on concept that the student is enabling to grasp independently. The teacher offers assistance with only those skills that one binds the student’s capability.
When the students take responsibility to master the task, the teacher begins the process of “fading” which means gradual removal of scaffolding or assistance which allows the students who work independently.
In scaffolding the teacher can assist student by breaking the task in to smaller more manageable parts, co-operative learning using questioning, coaching, Cue cards and modeling, activating background knowledge, giving tips and strategies to reduce stress level.
Scaffolding is an instructional technique whereby the teacher models the desired learning strategy or task and then gradually shifts responsibility to the students. According to Daniels (1994) the scaffolding completes in two steps.
1. Development of Instructional Plans
2. Execution of Plans
Features of Scaffolding: Applebee and Langer has identified five features of scaffolding,
· Intentionality
· Appropriateness
· Structure (Modeling & Questioning)
· Collaboration
· Internalization (Fading)
Similarly Zhao and Orey (1999) identified six general features of Scaffolding which are,
1. Sharing a specific goal
2. Whole Task Approach
3. Immediate availability of help
4. Intention assisting
5. Optimal level of help
6. Conveying expert model
Examples of Scaffolding:
· Mother employ scaffolding to train her child
· Teacher
· Business training
· Athletic teams
Andragogical Approach
It became particularly popular in North America and Britain as a way of describing adult learning. But what actually does it mean, and how useful a term is it when thinking about adult learning? Andragogy (andr- meaning 'man') could be contrasted with pedagogy (paid- meaning 'child' and agogos meaning 'leading'). It reappeared that 'adult education required special teachers, methods and philosophy, Andragogy is premised on,
1. Self-concept: As a person matures his self-concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being a self-directed human being
2. Experience: As a person matures he accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning.
3. Readiness to learn. As a person matures his readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of his social roles.
4. Orientation to learning. As a person matures his time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application, and accordingly his orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject-centeredness to one of problem centeredness.
5. Motivation to learn: As a person matures the motivation to learn is internal.
Each of these assertions and the claims of difference between andragogy and pedagogy are the subject of considerable debate. Here I want to make some general comments
First, the conception of andragogy is an attempt to build a comprehensive theory (or model) of adult learning that is anchored in the characteristics of adult learners. Such approaches may be contrasted with those that focus on. An adult's life situation, Changes in consciousness.
Second, it makes extensive use of a model of relationships derived from humanistic clinical psychology - and, in particular, the qualities of good facilitation argued for by Carl Rogers. These encourage the learner to identify needs, set objectives, and enter learning contracts and so on.
Third, it is not clear whether this is a theory or set of assumptions about learning, or a theory or model of teaching. We can see something of this in relation to the way he has defined andragogy as the art and science of helping adults learn as against pedagogy as the art and science of teaching children.
The assumptions explored with these things in mind we can look at the assumptions that Knowles makes about adult learners:
1. Self-concept:
As a person matures his self-concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being a self-directed human being. The point at which a person becomes an adult, according to Knowles, psychologically, 'is that point at which he perceives himself to be wholly self-directing. And at that point he also experiences a deep need to be perceived by others as being self-directing'.
2. Experience:
As a person matures he accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning. The next step is the belief that adults learn more effectively through experiential techniques of education such as discussion or problem solving. Experiences are any less real or less rich than those of adults. They may not have the accumulation of so many years, but the experiences they have are no less consuming, and still have to be returned to, entertained, and made sense of.
3. Readiness to learn.
As a person matures his readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of his social roles.
4. Orientation to learning.
As a person matures his time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application, and accordingly his orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject-centeredness to one of problem centeredness.
5. Motivation to learn:
As a person matures the motivation to learn is internal. Again, Knowles does not see this as something 'natural' but as conditioned - in particular, through schooling. This assumption sits awkwardly with the view that adults' readiness to learn is 'the result of the need to perform (externally imposed) social roles and that adults have a problem-centered (utilitarian) approach to learning'. In sum it could be said that these assumptions tend to focus on age and stage of development
Pedagogy: The art or science of being a teacher. The term generally refers to strategies of instruction, or a style of instruction.
Pedagogy is also sometimes referred to as the correct use of teaching strategies, Paulo Freire referred to his method of teaching adults as "critical pedagogy". In correlation with those teaching strategies the instructor's own philosophical beliefs of teaching are harbored and governed by the pupil's background knowledge and experiences, personal situations, and environment, as well as learning goals set by the student and teacher.
Designing a learning environment that starts and structures discussions and encourages participation. As Jonassen, Peck and Wilson (1999) state: “The primary goal of education at all levels should be to engage students in meaningful learning – … defined as active, constructive, intentional, authentic and cooperative.”
Pedagogical elements
Pedagogical elements are an attempt to define structures or units of educational material. For example, this could be a lesson, an assignment, a multiple choice question, a quiz, a discussion group or a case study. These units should be format independent, so although it may be implemented in any of the following methods, pedagogical structures would not include a textbook, a web page, a video conference or an iPod video.
When beginning to create eLearning content, the pedagogical approaches need to be evaluated. Simple pedagogical approaches make it easy to create content, but lack flexibility, richness and downstream functionality. On the other hand, complex pedagogical approaches can be difficult to set up and slow to develop, though they have the potential to provide more engaging learning experiences for students. Somewhere between these extremes is an ideal pedagogy that allows a particular educator to effectively create educational materials while simultaneously providing the most engaging educational experiences for students.
Three Main Pedagogical Approaches
Instructional
This approach is the traditional, teacher and content-focused approach, described above as mainly « surface » teaching, or the two first categories mentioned by Bruner. This approach tends to see learners as rather passive receptors absorbing and regurgitating what the teacher tells them. The learners are dependent on their teacher, who selects the sources, decides pace and judges the student’s performance. Basically, the instructional approach sees “knowledge” as fairly static and objective. From the learner’s perspective this can be described as “she taught me…”. The approach is an effective tool for the teacher to set the pace, cover the syllabus and be in control. It does not usually call for deeper understanding, and encourages “performers”. However, in a complex or a supercomplex world, the instructional approach might not always be sufficient, nor the most efficient way to learn.
Constructivist
This approach argues that people have to be active learners and construct knowledge themselves. The knowledge is seen as more subjective, dynamic and expanding rather than objective and static. The main tasks here are processing and understanding of information, making sense of the surrounding world. The learner has a clear responsibility for his own learning. This approach can be summed up as “I made sense of…”. Constructivism demands participation at all levels and moves responsibility and empowerment down the hierarchy, thereby flattening it. The teacher, the “instructivist "Sage on the Stage" –will increasingly become a "Guide on the Side" in this setting.
Social Constructivist
Social constructivism means that the student joins a knowledge-generating community and in collaboration with others solve real problems as part of their study. In a social constructivist environment, the teacher will himself be a learner together with his students, as the generic skills of collaboration, problemsolving and creating new knowledge are important goals by themselves. The time and pacing will be seen as less relevant compared to instructional studies. The tasks will be processing and assessing knowledge and generating and co-constructing new knowledge.
Bearing the increasing state of super-complexity in mind, it is important to realize that students in addition to learning and understanding existing knowledge, should themselves also produce new knowledge in order to be a part of the “knowledge society”. In order to respond to these demands, new forms of teaching and learning are required that build upon the possible interconnected nature of goals, tasks, resources, roles, pacing and social structure (as shown in Figure 1. This interconnectedness can be very effectively supported by the use of ICTs (Interactive communication technologies)
It is important to highlight here, however, that there is a common misconception that e-learning is mainly about technology. However: “technology is not what learning is all about. Learning is essentially about change. Learning involves changes in attitudes, beliefs, capabilites, knowledge structures and skills”. The failure to realize the difference between technology and learning is probably the most common explanation for the many student drop-outs from on-line courses.
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