Instructional Technology Notes for M.A Education

CHAPTER NO.1

Nature of instructional technology

In education, instructional technology is "the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning," according to the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) Definitions and Terminology Committee.[1]

History

The first use of instructional technology cannot be attributed to a specific person or time. Many histories of instructional technology start in the early 1900s, while others go back to the 1600s. This depenocused on sensory devices are relatively more recent.The use of audio and visual instruction was boosted as a military response to the problems of a labor shortage during WWII in the United States. There was a definitive need to fill the factories with skilled labor. Instructional technology provided a methodology for training in a systematic and efficient manner.With it came the use of highly structured manuals, instructional films, and standardized tests. Thomas Edison saw the value of instructional technology in films but did not formalize the science of instruction as the US military did so well.[edit]

World War II, or the Second World War, was a global military conflict, the joining of what had initially been two separate conflicts. The first began in Asia in 1937 as the Second Sino-Japanese War; the other began in Europe in 1939 with the German invasion of Poland. This global conflict split the majority of the world's nations into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis Powers. Spanning much of the globe, World War II resulted in the death of over 60 million people, making it the deadliest conflict in human history.[1]
World War II involved the mobilization of over 100 million military personnel, making it the most widespread war in history. The war placed the participants in a state of "total war", erasing the distinction between civil and military resources. This resulted in the complete activation of a nation's economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities for the purposes of the war effort; nearly two-thirds of those killed in the war were civilians[citation needed]. From 9 to 11 million of these civilian casualties were victims of the Holocaust—which was conducted by Nazi Germany—largely in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.[2] The financial cost of the war is estimated at about a trillion 1944 U.S. dollars worldwide,[3][4] making it the most costly war in capital as well as lives.
The Allies were victorious, and, as a result, the United States and Soviet Union emerged as the world's two leading superpowers. This set the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 45 years. The United Nations was formed in hopes of preventing another such conflict. The self determination spawned by the war gave rise to decolonization movements in Asia and Africa, while Europe itself began moving toward integration.

Current status

Instructional technology is a growing field of study which uses technology as a means to solve educational challenges, both in the classroom and in distance learning environments.While instructional technology promises solutions to many educational problems, resistance from faculty and administrators to the use of technology in the classroom is not unusual. This reaction can arise from the belief - or fear - that the ultimate aim of instructional technology is to reduce or even remove the human element of instruction. Most instructional technologists however, would counter with this claim that education will always require human intervention from instructors or facilitators.Many graduate programs are producing instructional designers, who increasingly are being employed by industry and universities to create materials for distance education programs. These professionals often employ e-learning tools, which provide distance learners the opportunity to interact with instructors and experts in the field, even if they are not located physically close to each other.More recently a new form of Instructional technology known as Human Performance Technology has evolved. HPT focuses on performance problems and deals primarily with corporate entities.[edit]

Relation to learning theory

The purpose of instructional technology, of course, is the promotion of learning. Learning theory (education) has influenced Instructional design and Instructional designers (the practitioners of Instructional Technology). Instructional Technologies promote communication and interactivity. These two come together under the general heading of Interaction.Moore (1989) argues that there are three types of learner interaction (learner-content, learner-instructor, and learner-learner interactions). In the years since Moore's article, several philosophical views have surfaced that relate Instructional technology to these types of interaction.Most traditional researchers (those subscribing to Cognitivism) argue that learner-content interaction is perhaps the most important endeavor of Instructional technology. Some researchers (those subscribing to constructivism) argue that Moore's social interactions, (learner-instructor and learner-learner interactions), are as useful as learner-content interaction.[edit]

Areas

Within the field of instructional technology, there are many specific areas of focus. While instructional technology can apply to the military and corporate settings, educational technology is instructional technology applied to a learning and teaching environment.Razavi (2005) advocates that educational technology covers instructional technology. It includes instructional technology and the field study in human teaching and learning. So educational technology is broader than instructional technology. Instructional technology itself is consisted from two major parts. One is teaching technology and another is learning technology. In the education industry, the term "instructional technology" is frequently used interchangeably with "educational technology."Human Performance Technology (HPT) has a focus on corporate environments. Learning sciences are a growing area of focus dealing instructional techniques and learning theories.

Instructional theory
Instructional theory is a discipline that focuses on how to structure material for promoting the education of humans, particularly youth. Originating in the United States in the late 1970s, instructional theory is typically divided into two categories: the cognitive and behaviorist schools of thought. Instructional theory was spawned off the 1956 work of Benjamin Bloom, a University of Chicago professor, and the results of his Taxonomy of Education Objectives — one of the first modern codifications of the learning process. One of the first instructional theorists was Robert M. Gagne, who in 1965 published Conditions of Learning for the Florida State University's Department of Educational Research.
Renowned psychologist B. F. Skinner's theories of behavior were highly influential on instructional theorists because their hypotheses can be tested fairly easily with the scientific process. It is more difficult to demonstrate cognitive learning results. Paulo Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed (ISBN 0-8264-1276-9) — first published in English in 1968 — had a broad influence over a generation of American educators with his critique of various "banking" models of education and analysis of the teacher-student relationship.
In the context of e-learning, a major discussion in instructional theory is the potential of learning objects to structure and deliver content. A stand-alone educational animation is an example of a learning object that can be re-used as the basis for different learning experiences. There are currently many groups trying to set standards for the development and implementation of learning objects. At the forefront of the standards groups is the Department of Defense's Advanced Distributed Learning initiative with its SCORM standards. SCORM stands for Shareable Content Object Reference Model.

Educational technology
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Educational technology is an area of study and practice within the fields of education and/or psychology. The term educational technology is often associated with, and encompasses, instructional theory and learning theory. While instructional technology covers the processes and systems of learning and instruction, educational technology includes other systems used in the process of developing human capability.
It is important to consider the meaning of technology to understand the meaning of the word in an educational context. The popular definition of technology refers to machine or electronic systems. Under this definition, for example, a DVD player or an Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) system constitute technology. However, fields such as Educational Technology rely on a more fulsome definition of the word. "Technology" can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines, hardware or utensils, but can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and techniques. One who practices educational technology is called an educational technologist.
Consider the publication "Handbook of Human Performance Technology" (Eds. Harold Stolovich, Erica Keeps, James Pershing)(3rd ed, 2006). The word technology for the sister fields of Educational and Human Performance Technology means "applied science". In other words, any valid and reliable process or procedure that is derived from basic research using the "scientific method" is considered a "technology". Educational or Human Performance Technology may be based purely on algorithmic or heuristic processes but neither necessarily implies physical technology.
An Educational Technologist is a person who transforms basic educational / psychological, or other allied sciences, research into an evidence-based applied science (or a technology) of learning or instruction. A classic example of an Educational Technology is "Bloom B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co Inc." Educational Technologists typically have a graduate degree (Master's, Doctorate, Ph.D., or D.Phil.) in a field related to educational psychology, educational media, experimental psychology, cognitive psychology or, more purely, in the fields of Educational, Instructional or Human Performance Technology or Instructional (Systems) Design.
We can also define Instructional Technology as "A complex, integrated process involving people, procedures, ideas, devices and organization for analyzing problems and devising, implementing, evaluating and managing solutions to those problems involved in all aspects of learning".

Types of Instructional Technlogy.
The evolution of technology in education
The technology of teaching
Instructional technology
Assistive technology
Medical technology
Technology productivity tools
Information technology
A complex example
References

Developing Instruction or Instructional Design
Theory 1 - Robert Gagné's (1970) Nine Steps of Instruction
Theory 2 - John Keller’s ARCS model
Theory 3 - Merrill's Component Display Theory
Theory 4 - Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory
Theory 5 - Constructivism
An Instructional Design Model
Templates
Notes
This page presents five theories for developing instruction. The five models should be read first as they provide a framework to build upon and are fairly consistent in their approach. The two main differences are the level of detail that they go into and their semantics.
The sixth section brings the theories together in an easy to follow model for ID design. This is followed by a section of resource of templates.
There are three types of strategies within Instruction Design theories:
Organizational strategies are broken down on the micro or macro level and deals with the way in which a lesson is arranged and sequenced,
Delivery strategies are concerned with the decisions that affect the way in which information is carried to the student, particularly, the selection of instructional media.
Management strategies involve the decisions that help the learner interact with the activities designed for learning.

Robert Gagné's Nine Steps of Instruction
There are three principal means of acquiring knowledge available to us: observation of nature, reflection, and experimentation. Observation collects facts; reflection combines them; experimentation verifies the result of that combination. Our observation of nature must be diligent, our reflection profound, and our experiments exact. We rarely see these three means combined; and for this reason, creative geniuses are not common.
Denis Diderot (1713–84), French philosopher. On the Interpretation of Nature, no. 15 (1753; repr. in Selected Writings, ed. by Lester G. Crocker, 1966).
Gain attention. Present a problem or a new situation. Use an "interest device" that grabs the learner's attention. This can be thought of as a "teaser" (the short segment shown in a TV show right before the opening credits that is designed to keep you watching and listening). The ideal is to grab the learners' attention so that they will watch and listen, while you present the learning point. You can use such devices as:
Storytelling
Demonstrations
Presenting a problem to be solved
Doing something the wrong way (the instruction would then show how to do it the right way)
Why it is important
Inform learner of Objective. This allows the learner's to organize their thoughts and around what they are about to see, hear, and/or do. There is a saying in the training filed to 1) tell them what you're going to tell them, 2) tell them, and 3) tell them what you told them. This cues them and then provides a review which has proven to be effective. e.g. describe the goal of a lesson, state what the learners will be able to accomplish and how they will be able to use the knowledge.
Stimulate recall of prior knowledge. This allows the learners to build on their previous knowledge or skills. Although we are capable of having our "creative" minutes, it is much easier to build on what we already know. e.g. remind the learners of prior knowledge relevant to the current lesson, provide the learners with a framework that helps learning and remembering.
Present the material. Chunk the information to avoid memory overload. Blend the information to aid in information recall. This is directly related to Skinner's "sequenced learning events." This allows learners to receive feedback on individualized tasks, thereby correcting isolated problems rather than having little idea of where the root of the learning challenge lies. Bloom's Taxonomy and Learning Strategies can be used to help sequence the lesson by helping you chunk them into levels of difficulty.
Provide guidance for learning. This is not the presentation of content, but are instructions on how to learn. This is normally simpler and easier than the subject matter or content. It uses a different channel or media to avoid mixing it with the subject matter. The rate of learning increases because learners are less likely to lose time or become frustrated by basing performance on incorrect facts or poorly understood concepts.
Elicit performance. Practice by letting the learner do something with the newly acquired behavior, skills, or knowledge
Provide feedback. Show correctness of the learner's response, analyze learner's behavior. This can be a test, quiz, or verbal comments. The feedback needs to be specific, not, "you are doing a good job" Tell them "why" they are doing a good job or provide specific guidance.
Assess performance. Test to determine if the lesson has been learned. Can also give general progress information
Enhance retention and transfer. Inform the learner about similar problem situations, provide additional practice, put the learner in a transfer situation, review the lesson.
Army Research Institute on Behavioral & Social Sciences completed a meta-analysis of the effects of overlearning.
Overlearning is additional training for the learner that occurs after the learner has reached proficiency on the task.
The results of the meta-analysis indicate that overlearning produces reliably better retention of the skill than just training to proficiency. Even after thousands of practice trials, performance continues to improve. Apparently, when considering the amount of practice - no amount is ever too much, especially for fundamental skills.http://www-ari.army.mil/foun.htm
John Keller’s ARCS Model of Motivational Design
According to John Keller, there are four steps in the instructional design process - Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction (ARCS).
Attention
According to Keller attention can be gained in two ways:
Perceptual arousal - uses surprise or uncertainly to gain interest. Uses novel, surprising, incongruous, and uncertain events.
Inquiry arousal - stimulates curiosity by posing challenging questions or problems to be solved. Stimulates information seeking behavior by posing or having the learner generate questions or a problem to solve. Maintain interest by varying the elements of instruction.
Methods for grabbing the learners' attention include:
Specific examples - Use a visual stimuli, story, or biography.
Active Participation or Hands-on - Involve the learners with role playing, games, lab work, or other simulations that allows them to get them involved with the material or subject matter. Note that active participation should almost always be included!
Incongruity and Conflict - Pose facts or statements that run contrary to the learner's previous experiences. Play devils advocate while discussing the subject to be covered.
Inquiry - Stimulate curiosity by posing questions or problems for the learners to solve. It may include such activities as brainstorming or performing team research.
Humor - Break up monotony and maintain interest by lightening the subject. However, too much humor distracts from your main topic. The goal is to hold your learner's attention, not to become a stand up comedian.
Variability - Combine a variety of methods in presenting material. Foe example, a 15 lecture, watch a video, then divide the classroom into groups to review the material and to answer questions posed by it. Using a variety of methods reinforces the material and helps to incorporate a variety of learning styles. Also see Media.
The first step, "gaining the learner's attention" is normally relatively easy; the key is to then maintain their attention at an optimal level after grabbing them. You have to keep them from becoming bored nor over stimulate them (see Arousal).
Relevance
Emphasize relevance within the instruction to increase motivation by using concrete language and examples with which the learners are familiar. They are six major strategies foe accomplishing this:
Experience - Tell the learners how the new learning will use their existing skills. We best learn by building upon our preset knowledge or skills.
Present Worth - What will the subject matter do for me today?
Future Usefulness - What will the subject matter do for me tomorrow?
Needs Matching - Take advantage of the dynamics of achievement, risk taking, power, and affiliation (see Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs).
Modeling - First of all, "be what you want them to do!" Other strategies include guest speakers, videos, and having the learners who finish their work first to serve as tutors.
Choice - Allow the learners to use different methods to pursue their work or allowing s choice in how they organize it.
Confidence
Allow the learners to succeed! However, present a degree of challenge that provides meaningful success.
Provide Objectives and Prerequisites - Help students estimate the probability of success by presenting performance requirements and evaluation criteria. Ensure the learners are aware of performance requirements and evaluative criteria.
Grow the Learners - Every learning journey begins with a single step that builds upon itself. This allows a number of small success that gets more challenging with every step. Learners should understand that there is a correlation between the amount of energy they put into a learning experience and the amount of skill and knowledge they will gain from that experience.
Feedback - Provide feedback and support internal attributions for success.
Learner Control - Learners should feel some degree of control over their learning and assessment (see Constructivism). They should believe that their success is a direct result of the amount of effort they have put forth.
Satisfaction
Provide opportunities to use newly acquired knowledge or skill in a real or simulated setting. Provide feedback and reinforcements that will sustain the desired behavior. If learners feel good about learning results, they will be motivated to learn. Satisfaction is based upon motivation, which can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Some basic rules are:
Do not annoy the learner by over-rewarding simple behavior.
If negative consequences are too entertaining the learners may deliberately choose the wrong answer.
Using too many extrinsic rewards may eclipse the instruction.
Notice that satisfaction is closely related to confidence. If you allow the learners to build confidence, satisfaction will follow if the task remains challenging.
B.F. Skinner had a major influence on ID through behaviorism and programmed instruction. He believed the best way for creating a good learning environment was to identify the desired behavior, then create situations in which successive approximations of the behavior would occur and be reinforced.

Merrill's Component Display Theory
Merrill's Component Display Theory (DDT) describes the micro elements of instruction (single ideas and methods for teaching them). It is designed to work in conjunction with Riegeluth's theory.
CDT is comprised of three parts:
A performance/content dimension comprised of the desired level of student performance and type of content.
Four primary presentation forms
A set of prescriptions relating the level of performance and type of content to the presentation forms.
The theory classifies learning into two dimensions:
Content, which consists of facts, concepts, procedures, and principles. Content ranges from facts, which are the most basic forms of content, to principles. It is the actual information to be learned. The four types of content in component display theory are
Facts - logically associated pieces of information. Some examples are names, dates, and events.
Concepts - symbols, events, and objects that share characteristics and are identified by the same name. Concepts make up a large portion of language and understanding them is integral to communication.
Procedures - a set of ordered steps, sequenced to solve a problem or accomplish a goal.
Principles - work through either cause-and-effect or relationships. They explain or predict why something happens in a particular way.
Performance, made up of remembering, using, and generalities. Performance is classified with remembering as being the simplest form of performance, to finding (generalities) the most advanced. Performance is the manner in which the learner applies the content. The three types of performance are:
Remembering - the learner is required to search and recall from memory a particular item of information,
Using - the learner directly apply the information to a specific case and
Finding - the learner uses the information to derive a new abstraction (concepts, principles, etc.).
By forming a matrix using content and performance, the instructor determines which elements on the matrix are the goals for the learner.
Simplified Matrix

Facts
Concepts
Procedure
Principles
Remembering




Using




Finding




The theory also identifies four primary presentation forms:
Rules
Examples
Recall
Practice
And some secondary presentation forms:
Prerequisites
Objectives
Helps
Mnemonics
Feedback.
The matrix is set up to determine the level of performance needed for an area of content. For each of the categories in the matrix, it can be assumed in CRT that there is a combination of primary and secondary presentation forms that will provide the most effective and efficient acquisition of skills and knowledge available. CRT specifies that instruction is more effective when it contains all the necessary primary and secondary forms. Thus, a complete lesson would consist of an objective, followed by some combination of rules, examples, recall, practice, feedback, helps, and mnemonics appropriate to the subject matter and learning task.
The theory is primarily designed for use by groups of learners. Several components are provided so that a wide variety of learners may participate, however each learner only needs the components which specifically work for her to achieve the goals of instruction.

What is known as "sequencing and organizing epitomes" in Reigeluth's Elaboration theory, is commonly referred to as "chunking."
For example, "Instructional Design" is chunked or epitomized into:
Analysis
Design
Develop
Implement
Evaluate
Each of the above epitomes or chunks are further divided. For example, Development is divided as:
List Learner Activity
Choose Delivery System
Review Existing Material
Develop Instruction (this page)
Synthesize
Validate
Developing Instruction (Instructional Design) is divided into several theories and a model (at least on this site). Notice how we took a complex subject and chunked it into small, bite size pieces.
Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory
Charles Reigeluth was a doctorate student of Merrill. He used a sequencing approach that is consistent with Merrill's Component Display Theory (that is, each theory enhances the other). Reigeluth believes that instruction is made out of layers and that each layer of instruction elaborates on the previously presented ideas. By elaborating on the previous ideal, it reiterates, thereby improving retention. This layering has a zoom lens sequencing approach that runs from simple to complex and repeated general-to-specific:
Present overview of simplest and most fundamental ideas
Add complexity to one aspect
Review the overview and show relationships to the details
Provide additional elaboration of details
Provide additional summary and synthesis.
This zoom lens approach first looks at the subject through a wide-angle lens. That is, the subject matter is general and fundamental. This allows us to deal with the core aspects of the subject. Elaboration begins with an overview of the simplest and most fundamental ideas of the subject.
Then we start to zoom in with the lens so that we pick up some details and specifics about the subject matter. We can also observe the relationships between the wide-angle subject shot and the zoom details. This principle as applied to elaboration theory is called a cognitive zoom.
As we continue to zoom, we go into great detail with each iteration or layering. Note that we are primarily concerned with the sequencing of ideas as opposed to the individual ideas themselves. Each zoom that we make is called a sequence. Sequencing in this case relates to fundamental ideas or core principles. The basic ones are presented first, this in turn, leads to a great layer of specifics. Each sequence of ideas or principles are called epitomes in elaboration theory. The epitome serves as a foundation from which more specific information may be developed.
The Seven Steps in Elaboration
1. Sequence
This simple to complex procedure can take many forms such as an overview, advance organizer, or spiral curriculum. This sequence is one in which the general ideas epitomize rather than summarize, and the epitomizing is organized on the basis of a single type of content:
Conceptual - Concepts are certain sets of objects, events, or symbols that have certain common characteristics.
Procedural - Procedures are sets of actions intended to achieve an end.
Theoretical - Principles are changes in something else, generally denoting cause and effect.
One of these three contents is chosen to achieve the goals of a lesson or course. Epitomizing is structured as follows:
One type of content is chosen (conceptual, procedural, or theoretical).
All the organizing content in the course is then listed.
The most basic and fundamental ideas are selected and presented at the application level.
This is the subject matter before the first level of elaboration:
PrechunksBefore we epitomize (chunk) the subject matter it is in a state of disarray
This is after elaboration:
PostchunksWe put chaos into order when we chunk (epitomize) the subject matter
From this first layer or epitome, we can then elaborate by organizing (the second step) the content.
2. Organize
The second step elaborates upon organizing the content in the first level. This process continues in the same way as the first step of Sequence. The relationships that result between the levels are organized according to content. At each level the expanded epitome is used to create a means to elaborate upon the next level.
Epitomes can be sequenced according to the order of steps:
Forward Chaining is presenting them in the order in which they are performed.
Backward Chaining is presenting them in the reverse order (backwards).
Hierarchical Sequencing is presenting all the major substeps separately before integrating them into a step in the sequence.
General to Detailed Sequencing is presented by summarizing.
Simple to Complex Sequencing is presenting them by their shortest paths (procedures) with each successive path becoming more complex.
Each epitome should be examined closely to determine if the learners have the essential knowledge that will allow them to learn the subject matter. If the necessary knowledge is not present, it must be provided.
3. Summarization
In order to systematically review what has already been learned, a summarizer is created. A summarizer provides a concise statement of each idea, an example. Two types of summarizers are used:
Internal - The summary comes at the end of the lesson and deals specifically with the content of that lesson.
Within-set - This deals with all that has been learned so far in a particular set of lessons. This can include other lessons that coordinate with that lesson.
4. Synthesize
This step integrates and interrelates the ideas taught thus far. The goal is to facilitate deeper understanding, meaningfulness, and retention in regards to the content area.
5. Analogy
Analogy is the use of a familiar idea or concept to introduce or define a new idea or concept. Analogies aid the trainer in reaching the learner's field of experience. Presenting analogies throughout the instruction helps the learners to build on their present knowledge or skills.
6. Cognitive-Strategy Activator
There are two categories of cognitive-strategy activators:
Imbedded - Uses pictures, diagrams, analogies, and other elements that force the learner to interact with the sequence and content.
Detached - Causes the learner to employ a previously acquired cognitive skill.
7. Learner Control
Learner Control deals with the freedom of the learner to control the selection and sequencing of such instructional elements as content, rate, components (instructional-strategy), and cognitive strategies.
Notes
Note that this is a macro strategy of instructional design that focus on the organization and sequencing of subject matter content by addressing the four design problem areas: selection, sequencing, synthesizing, and summarizing.
Elaboration theory is best suited for teaching causal relationships and sequences rather than problem solving or facts. It works in conjunction with component-display theory, which deals with the micro aspects of instruction and works out the details of elaboration.
Constructivist Theory
Constructivism is a learning theory, not an instructional approach, hence it can best be thought of as a way of "growing" or improving instruction. It is greatly influenced by Piagetian epistemology and Lev Vygotsky.
Constructivists place the learner at the center of the equation; the idea is that the learner constructs knowledge rather than passively absorbs it. Meaning is constructed by the learner, each in her own way. It is based on according to how the learner's understanding is currently organized. An individual's knowledge is a function of one's prior experiences, mental structures, and beliefs that are used to interpret objects and events.
In many classrooms, the predominant training model is direct instruction, which called instructivism or objectivism (based on information processing theory). The trainer's central role is to transmit knowledge to learners and learner's role is to absorb information (reception and compliance). In this model the trainer's performance is critical. Also, there is a over-reliance on rote memorization, which does not give the learners the skills in how to think and solve problems.
However, in today's real-world context, the work environment is becoming a learning environment (learning organization). Learners will not make use of concepts and ideas unless they use them through some type of process, that is, learners master only those activities they actually practice. Note that this is an assumption in both constructivism and rote learning environments.
Both constructivism and instructivism are required as learners need to be able to solve complex problems and be able to understand the reasons or methods they use to reach their conclusions. Note that this follows Bloom's Taxonomy in that it goes from simple leaning to the higher levels of critical thinking.
Strategies for Using Constructivism in Training
Good interactive strategies enhance the cognitive, social, and emotional climate.
Small Group Activities
In traditional classroom training, small group exercises involves the more conventional notion of cooperation, in that learners work in small groups on an assigned project or problem under the guidance of the trainer who monitors the groups, making sure the learners are staying on task and are coming up with the correct answers (if there is a right or a best answer). This is known as cooperative learning.Collaborative learning is a more radical departure. It involves learners working together in small groups to develop their own answer through interaction and reaching consensus, not necessarily a known answer. Monitoring the groups or correcting "wrong" impressions is not the role of the trainer since there is no authority on what the answer should be.
One small group method is "Numbered Heads Together" developed by Spencer Kagan. This method divides the learners in groups of three to six. Each group is assigned a team number and each group member is assigned a number. When the trainer poses a question, group members get together, examine the possibilities, and construct an answer. The trainer then picks a number by drawing a card or rolling a die. The number selected designates the spokesperson for each table group. A second number designates the table group that will respond first.
Group learning activities cause learners to integrate experiences, knowledge, and beliefs and at the same time, knowledge and beliefs are formed within each learner. While the group activity allows them to gain a new experience.
Learner Developed Instruction
Constructivist learning theory also places importance on the learner's point of view. Make a point of including participant requests in the design process. Although it requires extra work, the payback in engagement and learning is well worth the effort. This is because the learners bring some form of prior knowledge to presentations. These conceptions (and misconceptions) should become part of the design process for the experience you are trying to create. A mind map is a good method for helping a learner to present her current theories.
Metacognition and Reflection
Metacognition allows the learner to plan, set time lines, allocate resources. Also, metacognition also refers to the ability to reflect on one's own performance. Reflection allows the learners the opportunity to develop, assess, and organize their thoughts.
Other Activities
Ask questions
Identify situations where the learners' perceptions vary
Brainstorm possible alternatives
Have the learners:
Look for information
Experiment with materials
Observe phenomena
Conduct an experiment
Design a model
Collect and organize data
Employ problem-solving strategies
Select appropriate resources
Review and critique solutions
An Instruction Design Model
1. Chunk the material (epitomize)
2. Sequence it into a logical structure
3. Build an Interest Device (Get their Attention)
If you are building this to pass on to another instructor, then they might want to use their own interest device. However, you should always build one for back up purposes.
4. Organize the Objectives
This is the Task, Condition, and Standard built in the design phase. Normally, the objectives built are too stiff or formal for informing the learners. Reword them.
If at all possible, get the learners' input for the objectives - what do they need to learn that will make their job more effective or efficient. Let them play a part in constructing their learning.
5. Stimulate Recall of Prior Knowledge
Build on what the learners know.
How does this instruction relate to what they already know?
6. Create Strategies to Foster Critical Thinking and Deeper Understanding
Build activities. Consider needs first; technologies last (see sidebar in media). Your task is to solve real world problems and not to advocate computers or other technologies just for the sake of technology. Technologies can enhance training; they do solve training problems.
We learn what we do.
Relate the information to the learner's interests.
Short lectures are OK, but break them up with active participation.
Point out content relationships.
Ask rhetorical questions.
Ask the learners for examples (this allows them to build upon their experiences).
7. Build Summaries and Relate it to the Next Period of Instruction
Provide regular summaries. Give them time to gather their thoughts.
Build in Reflection periods for deeper understanding
8. Test the learners.
What we get tested on is what we remember the most and the longest.
This should have been built in the Design Phase.
9. Help with the Transfer of Learning
Templates
Lesson Plan Template (Word)
Presentation Template (Word)
A Quick Guide To Writing Learning Objectives (HTML)
Hints for using the above templates (HTML)


Major varieties of Instructional Technology
i. Computers
ii. Broad cast -Media
iii. Print Media
iv. Selected Operating Systems (MOE)

System:
“An established procedure or series of steps for accomplishing an educational goal”.
System has two parts.
1. Instructional technology it refers to the ways people try to teach.
Ø Information
Ø Attitudes
Ø Skills
2. Educational administration or / management
“It refers to the ways of organizing the people, facilities, ideas, and agencies that make up the formal and non – formal educational functions of a society.” It includes
Ø Educational Governance.
Ø Supervision.
Ø Support services.
Ø Infrastructure.
Ø Finance budgeting accounting.
Ø System monitoring.
Ø Management.
Ø Equipment maintenance.
Ø Research etc.
Inst. Technology.(methodology) not only concerns the procedures designed by educators but these practices include also.
Ø Descriptive lectures.
Ø Demonstrations.
Ø Threats of reward punishment and much more.
Factors Effecting Educational Technology:
1. Causes e.g. computer and its parts. Its
- invention and low cost production
- economy to purchase for classroom
- availability of programs in ach subject
- Trained teachers.
2. Similarities and Differences between Advance and less developed societies.
3. General / specific causes. e.g. ( financial strength )
4. realms of causes
Means categorizing the people on the basis of educational Innovation development – and transfer, by
Ø Political conditions
Ø Economic factors
Ø Cultural suitability
Ø Magnitude of change



How we can judge the success of Edu. Technology.
The following indicators can be used.

i) Effectiveness and Efficiency.

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ii) Popularity Politician
Education

The meaning or definition of technology.
Deferent definitions might be as under.
1) A problem solving invention.
2) Methods or strategies of teaching tools mechanical or electronically devices or instruments, library and even text books.
3) Observation of practice that lead to conclusion.
4) A combination of systematic programs and support items.
History:
Ø Discuss economy or technology.
Ø Before 1960 the educational tech was associated With A.V aids.
Ø Stanley awards start programmed learning and then with F.B skinner emphasized the practical utility of programmed learning.
Inst. Tech. like Edu.Tech, Edu.Philosophy, measurement and evaluation is a new era in the discipline of education.
Ø Centers of Edu. Tech ere established (CET) which now going to be centre of inst. Tech. ( CIT)
Meaning of educational technology.
1) The science of techniques or methods to realize educational goals.
2) Mechanization of educational process By 3 phases it gets completed.
Ø Preservation of knowledge.
Ø Transmission of knowledge.
Ø Advancement of knowledge.
3) It can also be said as
i) “Constructive Edu. Technology “dealing with
Ø Analysis of instructional process.
Ø Selection / construction of measuring instruments.
Ø Selection of technique to get desired out come.
ii) Relative technology.
“This only deals with the material gathering procedures or devices “.




Definitions of educational technology.
Acc. To G.P.M. ceith
“ a systematic application of scientific knowledge about teachings and learning and conditions of learning to improve the efficiency of learning an teaching ”

Ø Robert A. Cox defines.
“An application of scientific process to man’s learning conditions to what has come recently to be called educational or instructional technology.”
Ø Similarly R.A. Cox stresses on the learning.
Conditions for child’s development and has ignored the input and output system of education.
Ø Functional definition by E.E Haddon.
“Theory or practice concerned with the design and use of message which control the learning process.
Ø Unwind states that.
“Edu. Tech or Inst tech. is concerned with the application of modern skills and techniques to requirement of education and training also facilitated by manipulation of media and methods and control of environment so for as this reflects on learning.’
He reflected following characters of Inst. Technology i) Control of environment.
ii) Application of skills and technique in view of the objectives Ship K. Mitra says that I. tech also have the following characteristics.
Ø Stress upon developing new methods.
Ø Involves input – output process.
Ø I tech. is an application of scientific knowledge to education.
Ø Emphasizes to designing / measuring instruments for testing learning outcomes.
Ø Facilitates learning by control of environment.
Misunderstanding about Instructional technology:
Instructional technology can be distinguished from
1) Engineering Tech. it is concerned with the manufacturing of device like Av - aids, Radio, T.V etc while, The use of hardware (devices) approach to teaching and training may be called as Instructional Technology.
2) Audio – visual Aids.
These are used to achieve the objective of education to make lecture more interesting and to involve more sense of learning process.
3) Programmed instruction.
It’s a strategy of teaching and learning through self – instructional text or auto – tutor. This is also called as “software approach “or “instructional technology. “ of educational technology.
The educational technology isolates the teacher from the community especially in their roles as transmitters of cultural values.
And so in instructional technology as instrumental sophistication increase it completely makes the teacher role absent.
4) Educational problems.
People think wrong that Educational Problems can be solved by Educational Technology or instructional technology. The only part – it can pray is that it can just help the teacher to convey his lesson or improves learning process.
5) Teacher and instructional technology.
Usually it is said that development of instructional tech. will replace the teacher and will cause unemployment.
6) Educational psychology.
It is important to note that when principles of psychology are applied to education or is to improve the teaching learning process are termed as educational psychology.
When scientific principals and behavioral principals are applied to educational activities for attainting specific objective it is the content of educational or instructional technology.
A big misunderstanding,
No technology can replace a teacher because the instructional material can’t be prepared without a teacher. Therefore input – aspect is more important than out put so teacher as an input is more important. Technology helps only to achieve cognitive objectives.


Objectives of Instructional technology.
Ø To determine the goals / objectives.
Ø To analyze the characteristics of a learner.
Ø To provide feed back among other components about – learner.
Ø To organize the contents in logical / psychological sequence.
Ø To mediate between contents and resources of presentation.
Ø To evaluate the learners performance.
TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY:
The major types are
1. Teaching technology
Its a system of actions which induce learning through interpersonal relationship. It’s a social and professional activity. This activity/ process can be divided in to
Ø Planning of teaching ( analysis + identification )
Ø Organization of teaching strategies.
Ø Leading of teaching ( communication strategies )
Ø Controlling of teaching ( Evaluation )
2. Instructional Technology.
It is v. important as most of the human learning is through “instruction “while animal learning is through “conditioning”
“What is instruction “…….?
The systematic actions which induce learning are known as “instruction“

Inst. Technology means,
“A network of techniques or devices employed to accomplish certain defined set of learning objectives “
The origin of I.T is based upon psychological lab experiments. The most important example of instruction is programmed instruction. The programmed instruction and I. Technology can be used interchangeably has defined the term I. Tech comprehensively S.M. Mc Morin (1970).
I .T is a systematic way of designing, carrying out and evaluating the total process of learning and teaching in term of specific objectives based on research “.
On human learning and communication and employing a combination of human and non human resources to bring about more effective instruction.
Assumptions:
1. The content matter can be divided in to its element and each element – can be presented independently
2. The external learning conditions can be created by arranging the element in a logical sequence.
3. The appropriate re – enforcement can be provided continuingly by the use of instruction.
4. The students can learn according to his needs and rate of learning.
5. Meaning, abruptions , principle and instructions of mathematical programming,
6. Learning controlled instructions and computer assisted instruction (CAI).
7. Adjective devices for controlling individual differences.
8. Priming and promoting devices.
In addition to this, theory of instruction, principle, concepts of operant conditioning , theory of learning , operant condition model of teaching and schedules of reinforcement are also (I.T) in Instructional Technology.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUCTIONAL, TECHNOLOGY
1. Cognitive objectives can be achieved effectively by the use of instructional technology.
2. The learner gets opportunity to learn. Individual differences can be controlled though this technology.
3. The right responses of the students are confirmed for providing the reinforcement continuously.
4. It incorporates the physiological learning theories and principles.
5. The learning external conditions contiguity relation practice and reinforcement are created with the help of instruction.
6. The instructional theory may be developed by using this category of technology in learning process.
7. I.T can be employed in shortage of effective teachers.
8. Provides deep insight of the content structure and sequence of its elements.

3. Behavioral Technology
It studies the nature and structure of behavior of the organism. “Learning is the modification of behavior through activities and experiences”.
Assumptions:
· Teacher Behavior is observable.
· Teacher behavior is measurable and quantifiable.
· Teacher behavior is relative.
· Teacher behavior is social and psychological
· Teacher behavior is modifiable.
4. Instructional Design:
It involves 3 major concepts.
1. Teaching psychology
2. Cybernetic psychology
3. System Analysis

Scope of Instructional Technology
· Improves teaching learning process.
· Can remove defects provided by mass education.
· Can make correspondence more effective by Radio, T.V, and Tape recorder.
· Limitation of teacher training institutions can be removed.
· System analysis can be used to remove administrative problems.
· Removes the ineffectiveness of routine theoretical research.
· Development of teaching models.
· Provides scientific foundation to develop theories of teaching and instruction.



SOCIAL GOALS OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
1) As Cultural Transmission
According to Durkheim, society consists of a collection of ideas, sentiments and habits that its members hold in common. We are immersed in an atmosphere of collective ideas and sentiments which we can not voluntarily modify that was what he called,
“Collective consciousness “to explain the social order. If we ask the question that, what role the “instructional education“ can play in binding individuals to their society ? Then,
Durkheim states that, whole sociological and educational theory is aimed at strengthening the social tries among individuals. And only individual is not the central concern of education, rather It is to be on successfully transmitting culture.

2. As individual growth.
The problem of an individual are neglected when there are strong ties in society. There is an opposite’s difference among views of experts e.g.
Durkheim says that reasoning begins with the group and moves to individual but Carl Rogers says opposite to it. The aim of instructional technology is not designed to create a new individual. It helps the individual to regain his qualities which he had been unable to gain through socialization.
Roger says that the teacher or instructor is a facilitator. He insists that instruction does not mean to teach anybody but it is rather concerned with helping individuals learn what. They want to know and the instruction technology follows the techniques ,methods to help a person to learn something.
If people can regain selfhood through educational therapy, they will regain their natural ability to associate with others and community grows when individuals are freed from collective consciousness.
Roger moves to the main objective of I. Tech., that people who have undergone successful instructional therapy, no matter what their background or culture, come to share a direction (value) that problems social harmony. They are more able to tolerate change or more open to inner experience.

3. As democratic process.
Thoughtless obedience to the will of others produce only “ the other directed personality “ as described by the David Riesman. It was also called impression management by E. Goff man.
Davy saw the lack of connection between the individual and society as major problem of modernization. In democratic process when does the instructional technology plays its role? When communities, institutions and other social organizations become inflexible and limit the freedom and innovations and the individual personality become rigid and intolerant of change their instructional technology worries to make the situations flexible and democratic.
The intelligent technique / methods of I.Tech offer us freedom to control by routine, prejudice & dogma. It reorganizes people to choice when it exists and the wisdom to choose wisely.
Domains and Levels of Instructional Objectives
Educational Objectives



Stage wise
Overall Objectives class/ grade Subject wise
Objectives wise objectives Objectives


Lesson wise objectives Unit wise objectives

The educational objectives can be classified in to 3-main categories according to Blooms Taxonomy.
1. Cognitive Domain These domains can be further classified on the basis of complexity and hierarchy of mental functions.
i) Knowledge i.e. events, principles etc.
ii) Comprehension i.e. To interpret
iii) Application
iv) Analysis
v) Synthesis i.e. creating (something new)
vi) Evaluation
2. Effective Domain:
It is concerned with the development of interest, attitude an values.
i) Receiving (Attending) i.e. learner willingness to receive
ii) Responding i.e. Student attention
iii) Valuing i.e. Commitment / Acceptance to value.
iv) Organization i.e. Development of attitude.
v) Characterization of value complex
3. Psychomotor domain
It relates to the development of physical skills.
i) Imitation: i.e. Repetition of action
ii) Manipulation: i.e. follows direction of acts.
ii) Precision: i.e. to produce desired act.
iv) Articulation: i.e. acquires skill to present.
v) Naturalization: i.e. Habit formation


Chapter#06
Instructional Technology and Learning Assessment
In a learning situation, the system needs to bring in two different or even contradictory phenomenon .In the first place it means that the situation is seen as a relatively unified whole whose components are linked together and influence each other. Secondly the situation can not be analyzed in isolation since it is related to other situations and other levels this amounts to saying that there is no such thing as a system. Or at least no self-contained and automous system and every situation or institution must be regarded as a particular sub-system of a more comprehensive system. A teaching learning situation reflects,
Ø Political and social system
Ø Country’s material and economic state.
Ø Cultural and ideological views.
Ø Contradictions and conflicts existing.
Any level of system, which is fully independent, is learned as “traversed:” or,”criss-crossed” situation or tranversality.
e.g, Teaching hours & Governing Rules.
System Analysis OR System Approach
It construct new models, prepares a high level decision or to assist Operational research or It may be used as a tool for analysis, diagnosis and then action within an existing system.
Ø System analysis considers
i. To gain more insight in to what is doing with a tool to analyze complex situation.
ii. What is the possibility of things to be modified?
iii. To make constructive changes for system
Basic concepts about instruction & Learning
What is instruction?
“It is he purposeful direction of the learning process ”
Joyce, Weil and others have described four categories of models of teaching or instruction:
i. Behavioral Systems
ii. Information Processing
iii. Personal Development
iv. Social Interaction
Above four types summarize majority of instructional methods.
Points To Remember.
1) We often talk about best educational practices but we forget to connect the recommended practices with specific desired outcomes. Discussion about best practices then becomes a debate about desired out comes rather them a discussion of how to achieve them.
2) Different Models/ Methods have been developed based on specific interpretations of concepts of teaching /learning. But it is neglected to understand the concepts and principles upon which they are based.

INSTRUCTIONAL CONCEPTS
Teaching requires the instructor to have a good understanding of variety of concepts and techniques. There are no set answers about how to run a course or teach a particular part of syllabus because the situations and students requirements are infinitely variable.
A good, experienced instructor will have a range of approaches in their tool box that they can utilize as they are called for.
1. S.E.L
It stands for safety, Enjoyment then learning. Whatever we do, safety is of prime importance. This means balancing the risks of the situation against your and crew’s experience and abilities.
2. E.D.I.C.T
It stands for explanation, Demonstration, Imitation, Correction and Testing or training Example: Boat handling
3. K.I.S.S
It stands for keep it simple and stupid what is the minimum way we can say, to get our point across? More information does not mean more learning.
4. Teach a little well, Not a lot Badly
It is common problem when you first start teaching is knowing when to stop. You should mot be trying to pass on all your knowledge that took, years to gain, in one week.
5. Teach in short - Bursts
After 30 minutes teaching you will loose your effectiveness. Students will learn more from several short lessons.
6. Brief Thoroughly:
Before every activity to start briefs the students on what will happen, of they are skippering, cover what you expect of them.
7. Debrief Thoroughly:
After every activity debrief on what occurred. Good points, weaker areas and other approaches if relevant.
8. Accept a Rough form
No one will perform perfectly, be prepared to accept a good try, and then build on that. Praise the best parts of their actions.
9. Approach to Errors
Remember students are there because they cannot yet do the task they have come to learn. (So errors of ) students must be neglected.
10. P.E.T
Stands for perception, Emotion and Technique.
Check student’s perception of the task, do they understand it the same way you do? Consider their emotional state. When people are very nervous they do not perform well then apply technique to solve the problem.
11. Find something to praise
Concentrate on praising the attemp, rather than focusing on the negative. It will improve the weaker areas on their own.
12. See their students where you want them to-be-not where they are now.
If you think negative thoughts about your students you will find lots of thing to criticizing, and vice versa people will rise to your expectations or sink to them.
13. Asking Questions:
Asking questions can increase the retention of information. Students remember much better if they themselves go through a subject rather then spoon-feeding.


14. Visualization
Get students to visualise all the actions that will take place before attempting a complex activity.
15. Communications:
Verbal, Visual, Demonstration etc.
16. Chaining
It means, explaning things in small segments.
17. Coaching

New paradigm of Instructional Theory
It is important to encourage instructional theories in a video variety of different areas not only in cognitive domain but also in effective domain.
The following points are worthy / importance in discussion
1) Some key points or key marker are there which distinguish new (information) age paradigm of industructional theories from the old paradigm i.e. industrial age are

Old Paradigm=============== New Paradigm
(Industrial age) (Information age)
Standardization customization
Centralized control Autonomy
One way communication Networking
Conformity Diversity
Parts oriented Process Oriented
Teacher as “King” Learner as “King”

What doest above terms mean is that instructional theories should provide guidance for customizing learning For customizing learning for each learner, as opposed to “one size fits all”.
2) We need to recognize two major kinds of instructional methods
Ø Basic methods, (A.V.aids etc)
Ø Instructional theory (Learning focused)
3) Instructional theory should result in design that allows learners to make more decisions about their instructional methods or alternative approaches.
CONCEPT OF LERNING
What is Learning?
A process in which behavior capabilities are changed as the result of experience, provided the change can not be accounted for by native responses tendencies, maturation, or temporary states of the organism due to fatigue, drugs, or other temporary factors”
Over all we can say that learning is a process of improvement involving progressive organization of human behavior.
Characteristics of Learning
Ø At all stages it’s a continous process
Ø All living is Learning.
Ø Results change in behavior.
Ø It comes about as a result of practice.
Ø Learning is universal i.e. Every creative that live, learn.
Ø Learning is relatively a permanent change.
Ø Learning is growth.
Ø Learning is Observable.
Components of Learning
There are four component of learning:
1) Drive:
It refers to an internal state of tension, which calls for action.
2) Eve:
An eve is an environmental stimulus.
3) Response:
It represents the person’s reaction to eves within his environment.
4) Reinforcement:
It happens to the extent that a response is rewarded. The probability of response being duplicated is increased and habit formation occurs.
Theories of Learning
Various theories of learning have been put forward to explain the nature of learning process. These can be classified as,
(A) Connectionist, Behavioursit, Mechanicalistic, Associative Or S-R theories.
It can further be sub-divided in to
Ø Pavlov’s classical conditioning.
Ø Thorndike, s Trail & Error or conditioning theory.
Ø Skinner’s Operant Conditioning.
Ø Miller’s Theory
Ø Hull’s Theory
Ø Watson Theory
Ø Guthrie’s sign learning theory.

(B) Cognitive, Gestalt, Purpose, Organismic or S-O-R Theories,
It can be further sub-divided as
Ø Gestalt-or insight learning theory
Ø Kurt-Lewin, s field theory.
Note: S-R means Stimulus-Response & S-O-R means Stimulus-
Organism- Response
Pavlov Theory of classical conditioning

Pavlov was first to make the relationship between stimulus and response. He is primarily responsible for the theory of classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that elicits (draw out, evoke) a response is paired with another stimulus that initially doest not elicit (draw out) a response in its own. Over time, this second stimulus causes a similar response because it is associated with the first stimulus. For example be noticed that his dogs recreated saliva at the sight of food at feeding time. Pavlov called food as unconditioned stimulus (USC) and secreation of saliva as as unconditioned response (UCR). Simply we can say that an unconditioned response. When Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus (a bell) with the UCR, with the passage of time his dogs learned to salivate at the sound of bell. This bell is a conditioned stimulus (CS) and salivation a conditioned response (CR).
What we learn from Pavlov’s theory? We learn that,
Ø How a part of environment comes to be associated with and controls an animal’s response.
Ø He made an objective approach to the process of learning.

Ø Conditioning can help in developing good habits and breaking bad ones.
Ø It can help us in teaching alphabets to children.
Ø He also pointed out that all and especially higher learning is not possible through conditioning.

WATSON THEORY OF LEARNING:

Ø “Law of Frequency” OR “Law of Exercise”
He proposed, “When a stimulus and response occur at the same time the close contiguity, it leads to strengthening of connections”.
Ø Law of Recency:
“Most recent responses are strengthened more by its frequent occurance. He considers that learning implies the shifting of old response to a new stimuli”.
Example: Experiment of production of fear in a child when the touches the rabbit, at the some time loud sound was given, which caused fear in child.
GUTHERIE, S THEORY OF LEARNING:
This theory is based upon stimulus response theory of “Association by contiguity”.
Principle of Contiguity:
“A combination of stimuli which has accompanied movement will on its reoccurrence tend to be followed by that movement”

According to Guthrie, Learning is sudden and conditioning takes place when stimulus (S) and response (R) are presented at the same time. Repition plays a vital role in learning process. He rejected Watson law of frequency and advocated the principles of POSTERMILY (Effect), which implies that only the last response in the series that was connected to stimulus was important.

What we learn from this theory? We learn that,
Ø Emotional responses of human being can be analyzed.
Ø We can break bad habits of children.
Ø We can learn by doing.
Ø Use of teaching aids is best for learning.
Note:
Ø Theory of Povlov, Watson and Gutherie are called theories without Reinforcement.
Ø Theory of Thorndike, Hull and Skinner are called Theories with Reinforcement.
THORONDIKE S-R Reinforcement Theory

Responses, which give pleasure and satisfaction, are reinforced and also become more probable in future. Hence this theory is known as the reinforcement theory.
Thorndike says that all learning is the formation of bonds or connections, which has been called “The Bond theory” or “connectionism”.
Experiment: This is also known as instrumental conditioning. Thorndike put the cat in the puzzle box and kept food outside. Cat got the stimulus from food and opened the box. The second time he got less time to open the box and so on.

What we learn from this experience? We learn that,

Ø We learn that there is association b/t sense impressions and impulse to action the bond or connectionism.
Ø Learning occurs by Trail & Error i.e. selecting and connecting.
Ø All the human beings learn from this method. We try a number of possible solutions and finally find out the desired solution.
Skinner S-r Reinforcement theory
“OR” Skinner operant conditioning.

The term operant in used because the behavior activity operates on.
“OR” Has an effect on the environment for learning to occur.
Example
Teaching animals to dance, play ping pong and so on by systematically rewarding them for desired behaviors. Skinner identifies two types of learning.
Ø Respondent behavior
Ø Operant behavior
Human behavior is mostly operant type. Skinner used an experiment in rats in box with liver attached to food pellet. When rat pushes the lever then the food pellet is released to rat. The rat repeats this process by learning by pushing the lever (operant) and connects with reward or reinforcement (food).

Difference between classical and operant conditioning
Ø Operant conditioning reinforces responses that are presumed to be under the conscious control of the individual while, classical conditioning reinforces involuntary responses.
Ø Classical responses occur as a result of stimuli that occur prior to the response, whereas operant responses are reinforcement by consequences that occur after the behavior.
COGNITIVE THEORIES
Since 1960 psychology has moved away from behaviorism and has welcomed a new branch called “cognitive psychology”
In this branch the cognitive theory argues that learning is a more complex process utilizes problem solving method and insightful thinking in addition to repetition of a stimulus response chain. For complete understanding of cognitive theory consider the experiment by Kohler.
Experiment:
Monkey was caged and bananas were placed outside the cage. Out of monkey’s reach, and a stick was placed inside the problem of reaching the bananas by using stick as a tool. The monkey has to solve the problem of reaching bananas by using stick as a tool.
Conclusion
In this case learning did not occur a result of merely associating a stimulus and a response. Rather insight intervened between goal recognition (procurement if food) and goal achievement.
Difference between Behaviorism & Cognitive Theory

In behavioral conditioning, feed back works to reinforce particular responses through mind intervening in not involved. While,
In cognitive theory, people forms plans based on their needs, motives, values and beliefs about themselves. They get feed back and actively modify perceptions, plans and behavior accordingly.
ASSESSMENT:
A process employing observation, task analysis and testing to arrive at learning characteristics for educational, vocational and social decision making about individuals.
Dimensions of assessment
Ø Classification of the learner problem
Ø Diagnosis if the problem area
Ø An analysis of the structure and content of learning.
Each dimension involves some kind of testing, which raises the question of how testing and assessment are related to each other.
In brief, testing is the systematic study of a sample behavior, usually expressed in quantitative terms (e.g. meaning IQ level). Assessment has a broader meaning and refers to the qualitative as well as quantitative learners environment. Assessment includes testing if various aspects of the individuals but goes beyond that.
Analyzing the structure of learning (Task Analysis)
The approach basically is to identify a terminal task and to break it down in to its components parts. The approach is also experimental in nature. Further more criteria for evaluating a child’s performance in a task can be very according to the judgment of the teacher. For example rate (time) and accuracy might be two measurable variables for learning assessment and so on.
Finally the teacher may tale some remedial steps to improve learning.
Ø The focus is on quantitative and qualitative appraisal of the student’s ability, learning capacities, emotionality and how these three areas relate to the child’s response to demands if the environment.

References
Allied material on Educational Technology,
Course Code:834 M.A/M.ED. AIOU
The selection and use of Instructional Media,
Second Edition, by A J Romiszowski.
Curriculum and Instruction by D.S.Srivastava, Sarita Kumari.
Educational Technology by Dr. Muhammad Rashid.