CHAPTER 7
TEACHING LEARNING AIDS
7.1 IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING LEARNING AIDS
Any thing which is helpful while teaching any topic is called Teaching Learning Aid. Learning aids are instructional materials and devices through which teaching and learning are done in schools. Examples of learning aids include visual aids, audio-visual aids, real objects and many others. The visual aids are designed materials that may be locally made or commercially produced. They come in form of wall-charts illustrated pictures, pictorial materials and other two dimensional objects. There are also audio-visual aids. These are teaching machines like radio, television, and all sorts of projectors with sound attributes.
Importance of Teaching Learning Aids is given below:
1. According to Chinese.” A thousand hearings are not so effected as one seeing”.
2. According to Educationists, Knowledge can be communicated by our five senses as under:
By seeing---------75%
By hearing---------13%
By touching --------03%
By smelling---------04%
By tasting----------05%
3. With the help of Teaching Learning Aids teaching becomes easier.
4. Abstract concepts of Mathematics can be taught by concrete materials easily.
5. Doing is more prominent than reading.
6. Use of A.V.Aid is necessary for attraction of students.
7. A.V.Aids are important for the students interest in the topic being taught.
8. Mathematics demands the use of Aids at every step.
9. Time is not wasted. More can be taught in a short time.
10. Things are understandable by doing.
11. Learning is faster, easier, and in greater depth when the principles of mechanics, mechanical design, structures, and stress analysis are actually experienced by the student. Vishay Measurements Group teaching/learning aids are intended to generate student interest, provide motivation, and develop comprehension of stress and strain concepts which otherwise tend to remain abstractions.
12. Some investigators claim that whenever they taught with some of the learning aids, their students get more stimulated because the learning aids help them (students) to become more attentive. In addition, students positive attitude generate more interest for the lesson they teach. As a result, students participate better in class activity.
13. The positive effect of teaching with various learning aids were approved as acceptable to over ninety (90) percent of the teachers in that:
· they claimed that learners understand better what they teach them when they used them to teach.
· the teacher also improvised for the teaching aids when needed.
· teachers claim that they used teaching aids to explain the various concepts that required explanation.
7.2 TYPES OF TEACHING LEARNING AIDS
Some types of teaching learning aids are given below:
1- Black / white Board (Structured)
2- Charts(UnStructured)
3- Models (Structured)
4- C.D’s(Structured)
5- Tape Recorder (Structured)
6- Radio(Structured)
7- Television(Structured)
8- Posters (Structured)
9- Text Book (Structured)
10- Text Books relative to the topic (Structured)
11- Soft ware (Unstructured)
12- Videos ((Unstructured)
13- Games (UnStructured)
14- Lab Equipments (Structured)
15- Environment and Nature (Proportionate)
16- Online Services (Unstructured)
17- Place-Value Pockets(Structured)
18- Film Strips(Structured)
19- Graphs (Structured)
20- Geo Board (Structured)
21- The Epidiascope (Structured)
22- The Slide Projector (Structured)
23- Maps (UnStructured)
24- Computer (Structured)
24- Computer Programme (UnStructured)
Some Teaching and Learning Aids
1-- 18 x 14 sq inch Wipe Of Board(Structured)
These classroom teaching aids provide helpful resources and visual aids for school or homeschool teachers. These top-quality magnetic white boards are truly ReMARKable! Sturdy metal boards provide classroom durability. Use them with our magnetic letters, numbers, and shapes or with dry-erase markers (sold separately) for math, reading, and art activities. Available ...
2- 24 X 36-Sq Inch Magnetic Wipe-Off Board(Structured)
Visual teaching aids help students to learn faster. These top-quality magnetic white boards are truly ReMARKable! Sturdy metal boards provide classroom durability. Use them with our magnetic letters, numbers, and shapes or with dry-erase markers (sold separately) for math, reading, and art activities. Available in five sizes to fit your classroom needs—from student ...
3-- Alphabet Bean Bags(UnStructured)
Learning the alphabet is fun with these preschool alphabet activities for classrooms or homeschool. Kids will love tossing around their ABCs, learning letters, and building words with these lightweight, washable beanbags. Each of the twenty-six beanbags is made of soft, cuddly felt, and is small enough for little hands. Beanbags are embroidered with uppercase letters ...
4 Chalk-A-Lot(Structured)
Visual teaching aids help students to learn faster. The Chalk-A-Lot Chalk Holder saves your hands from chalk-dust and extends the life of your chalk! This attractive, refillable plastic holder is easy to grip and allows you to adjust the chalk position with the touch of a button to keep chalk whole. Comes with one piece of chalk.
5-- Eggspert Game Play Answer System(Structured)
These classroom teaching aids provide helpful resources and visual aids for school or homeschool teachers. Spice up classroom management and practice on math facts, spelling, history, science terms - anything in your curriculum - with this clever, motivating answer system. Two modes of operation: (1) 'JEOPARDY' Mode - Each of the half-dozen Eggspert lights connects to ...
6-- Jumbo-Size Horseshoe Shaped Magnets(Structured)
These science experiments with magnets and magnet toys provide hands-on science activities and great ideas for easy classroom and science fair projects. Where can you make the magnet stick? How does it work? For these kinds of discussions and more, use these durable, steel horseshoe-shaped magnets. Good for small groups or individual learning. Permanent and powerful!
6 --- Magnetic Teaching Tile Numbers & Symbols(UnStructured)
These classroom teaching aids provide helpful resources and visual aids for school or homeschool teachers. The Magnetic Teaching Tiles Learning System is a hands-on approach to introducing and reinforcing math skills. Students can use these special tiles on any magnetic surface to put together math statements, making math practice more fun.
7-- Mathmagnets Color Coded 42 Pcs 1.5-Inch(Structured)
These classroom teaching aids provide helpful resources and visual aids for school or homeschool teachers. MathMagnets are shaped accurately with correct proportions, and are made with strong magnets for a 'sure stick.' Multicolored MathMagnets include math symbols. (42 red, blue, green, yellow, orange and magenta pieces, 1-1/2-inch tall). Comes in a durable, ...
9
8---Mathmagnets Multi Colored 42 Pc 2.5-In(UnStructured)
Visual teaching aids help students to learn faster. MathMagnets are shaped accurately with correct proportions, and are made with strong magnets for a 'sure stick.' Jumbo pieces are 2-1/2-inch tall for handling ease and tactile feedback for young children learning basic skills. Color-coded sets help teach differentiation with red math symbols and blue numbers (42 ...
9-- Teachers Number Line(UnStructured)
These classroom teaching aids provide helpful resources and visual aids for school or homeschool teachers. The Teacher's Number Line helps to teach counting and number relationships. It can be used to direct instruction the whole class. The teacher can work in front of the class using the number line. This 5 ¾" x 36" inch number line is plastic coated featuring a ...
10-- Teaching Tiles Math Readiness Center(Structured)
Visual teaching aids help students to learn faster. Students practice math skills using fun manipulative materials - large, chunky tiles illustrated with vivid, full-color photographs, sturdy plastic 'work' trays, and full-color, photo-illustrated, self-checking activity cards. Develops important beginning math skills including colors, shapes, numbers, counting, ...
11-Teaching Tiles Number & Math Symbols(UnStructured)
These classroom teaching aids provide helpful resources and visual aids for school or homeschool teachers. This Teaching Tiles learning system provides a tangible way to introduce and reinforce beginning math skills. Used with the trays, students can put together math statements using the numbers and math symbols tiles for hands-on math practice. Includes numbers and ...
12-Black/White Board
This is first and foremost for all the items of Mathematics equipment. As soon as the teaching of Mathematics starts, use of Black/White Board is needed. Problems/Sums can easily and efficiently be solved on Black/White Board. Students should also be given opportunity to write on it. Mistakes on it can be rubbed of easily. This is equally useful for lower and higher classes. Its height should be 75cm to 100cm from the ground. Writing size should be suitable and normal.
13- Charts
Charts can cover a vast range of Mathematical topics, such as percentage, graphs, Geometrical figures, angles, triangles, income and expenditures, fraction, profit and loss, etc.
Charts should be multicoloured and artistic. Charts save the time of teachers. Some of the good charts should remain hanging on the walls of the class.
References
Adeyanju, G.A. (1977); Creativity Learning and Learning Styles. Zaria: Nigeria. Isola Ola & Sons.
Adeyanju, J.L. (1986); The role of education technology in pre-primary education. Education technology and the 6-3-3-4 education system. Nigeria Association for Educational Media and Technology (NAEMT) 30-38.
Adeyanju, J.L. (1988); The application of educational technology in pre-primary education. Journal of Educational Media and Technology (JEMT), 2(1), 73-79.
CHAPTER 8
USE OF TECHNOLOGY
8.1 USE OF CALCULATORS
Students are permitted to use calculators on most sections of the Pennsylvania Mathematics Assessment for the following reasons:
(1) The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics recommends that in mathematics settings, technology be used as a classroom tool for both instruction and assessment.
(2) The Mathematics Assessment tasks place strong emphasis on problem solving in applied settings, and calculators are used as tools in such instances.1
(3) Although all tasks can be solved without the use of a calculator, certain grade 11 tasks are much more difficult without a calculator.
(4) The type of calculator used should be appropriate to the grade level of the student involved in the assessment. At grade 8, a scientific calculator has been shown to be helpful while in grade 11, a graphing calculator is helpful.1 (5) The students who use calculators score better than those who don't . However, these students understand the underlying concepts and could solve the problem with or without the use of a calculator. They have been taught to distinguish situations in which the use of calculators is appropriate from those in which mental arithmetic, estimation or paper-and-pencil computations would suffice. In these students' classrooms, calculators have been introduced after a concept is understood and students have received instruction, guided practice and independent practice on their use in a variety of learning situations.
(6) The appropriate use of the calculator would permit all students, including those who have difficulty mastering computation skills, to develop problem solving skills that are critical to the understanding of mathematics.
(8) Business men use calculators for counting, adding, subtraction, multiplication.
(9) Scientific calculator is a useful device for students of Mathematics, Statistics, Engineering, Medical, M.B.A, D.Com, M. Com etc.
(10) All students should be encouraged to develop basic skills in mathematics. However problem-solving skills are essential not only in academic situations but also in the workplace, students should be introduced to calculator skills early in their education and build on those skills as they progress through more demanding course work.
(11) Four basic types of calculators are available to answer the needs of students at differing levels of understanding.
(12) Basic or Four Function Calculator
This type of calculator is used in most elementary schools. It performs four basic operations. Most of these calculators also have memory and constant capabilities, as well as change sign, percent, square and square root keys. These calculators have a logic system which processes operations from left to right regardless of the standard order of operations.
(13) Fraction Calculators
Fraction Calculators are most often used at the intermediate and middle school levels. This calculator allows fractions to be entered, displayed, and manipulated and has an algebraic hierarchy logic system. Fractions can be converted to decimals and vice versa. It performs integer division and has a "fix" key that can be used to set the number of decimals. Fraction calculators eliminate the need to spend countless hours teaching computation with fractions and decimals, allowing teachers to concentrate on process and concepts.
(14) Scientific Calculators
Scientific Calculators are most often used in the upper middle and lower high school levels. All scientific calculators have an algebraic hierarchy logic system that adheres to the standard order of operations. In addition to the four basic operations keys of a basic calculator, all scientific calculators can perform trigonometric and logarithmic functions. Some scientific calculators also perform statistical functions. Other function keys may include the ability to compute reciprocal, powers, and roots.
(15) Graphing Calculators
Graphing Calculators are used at the upper middle and high school levels. These add a visual dimension to the teaching of graphing function. These calculators also have the features of the scientific calculator as well as statistical and matrix math capability.
(16) There tends to be a lot of concern over the use of calculators in school and for homework.
8.2 USE OF COMPUTERS
Findings About the Use of Computers
Most people with difficulties and impairments use computers today. However, despite the high rate of computer use, individuals with mild or severe difficulties/impairments are less likely to use computers than are individuals no difficulties/impairments. The following section discusses rates of computer use at home, work, and school among individuals with mild or severe difficulties/impairments and compares them with computer use rates among those no difficulties/impairments.
Computer Use Rates Lower Across All Types of Mild or Severe Difficulties/Impairments
Computer use is widespread, but individuals with mild or severe difficulties/impairments are less likely to use computers than are those without difficulties/impairments. Among working-age adults, a total of 78% use computers—68% use a computer at home and 45% use a computer at work. Computer use rates are lower among those with mild or severe difficulty/impairment, particularly among those with severe difficulties/impairments.
Figure 2 shows computer use rates among individuals with no, mild, or severe difficulties/impairments. Compared to those with no difficulties/impairments, computer use rates are slightly lower among working-age adults with mild difficulties/ impairments. Computer use rates are much lower among working-age adults with severe difficulties/impairments. Specifically:
· 85% of working-age adults with no difficulties/impairments use computers.
· 80% of working-age adults with mild difficulties/impairments use computers.
· 63% of working-age adults with severe difficulties/impairment use computers.
Figure 2: Computer Use Rates Among Working-Age Adults with No, Mild, or Severe Difficulties/Impairments
While the rate of computer use is slightly lower among individuals with mild impairments/difficulties, the decrease among those with severe difficulties/impairments is much greater, reflecting the more significant barriers that these individuals face when trying to use computers. Moreover, lower rates of computer use among individuals with mild difficulties/impairments largely reflect differences in levels of education and income between those with no and mild impairments.
Compared with working-age adults with no difficulties/impairments, computer use rates are lower among working-age adults across all types of difficulties and impairments. Figure 3 shows computer use rates among the range of individuals with mild or severe visual, dexterity, hearing, cognitive, and speech difficulties and impairments.
Figure 3: Comparison of Rate of Computer Use by Type and Severity of Difficulty/Impairment
Computer Use Rates Lowest Among Individuals with Multiple or Severe Difficulties/Impairments
Working-age adults with severe difficulties are less likely to use computers than are working-age adults with mild difficulties/impairments. It is likely that this difference stems from the significant challenges working-age adults with severe difficulties/impairments face when trying to use computers. Those with more than one difficulty/impairment, particularly when one is severe, are even less likely to use computers than are individuals with only one type of mild difficulty/impairment. This relationship is important to understand because a large percentage of individuals with difficulties/impairments have multiple types of difficulties/impairments. Specifically:
· 35% of individuals with mild difficulties/impairments have multiple types of difficulties/impairments.
· 63% of individuals with severe difficulties/impairments have multiple types of difficulties/impairments.
Figure 4 compares the rates of computer use among individuals with only one difficulty/impairment and those with multiple types. Computer use rates are lowest among individuals with multiple types of difficulties/impairments or severe difficulties/impairments. Specifically:
· 82% of working-age adults with one mild difficulty/impairment use computers.
· 70% of working-age adults with one severe difficulty/impairment use computers.
· 78% of working-age adults with multiple types of mild difficulties/impairments use computers.
· 59% of working-age adults with multiple types of severe difficulties/impairments use computers.
Figure 4: Comparison of Computer Use Rates Among Individuals with Single Versus Multiple Mild or Severe Difficulties/Impairments
Computer Use Rates at Work, Home, and School Lower Among Individuals with Difficulties/Impairments
The relationship between using a computer and having a difficulty/impairment differs among the general population of working-age adults, employed working-age adults, and working-age students.
Figure 5 compares computer use rates of working-age adults with no, mild, and severe difficulties/impairments. Computer use is compared among: all working-age adults who use computers at home; working-age students who use computer at school; and, employed working-age adults who use computers at work.
Figure 5: Comparison of Computer Use Rates Among Working-Age Adults with Mild or Severe Difficulties/Impairments at Home, Work, and School
Figure 5 shows that working-age adults with severe difficulties/impairments are less likely to use computers at home, work, or school than are those with no or mild difficulties/impairments.
For computer use among all working-age adults at home:
· 74% of working-age adults with no difficulties/impairments use a computer at home.
· 70% of working-age adults with mild difficulties/impairments use a computer at home.
· 54% of working-age adults with severe difficulties/ impairments use a computer at home.
· For computer use among employed working-age adults at work:
· 62% of working-age adults with no difficulties/impairments use a computer at work.
· 60% of working-age adults with mild difficulties/impairments use a computer at work.
· 47% of working-age adults with severe difficulties/ impairments use a computer at work.
· For computer use among part-time or full-time adult students at school:
· 49% of working-age adult students with no difficulties/ impairments use a computer at school.
· 53% of working-age adult students with mild difficulties/impairments use a computer at school.
· 44% of working-age adult students with severe difficulties/ impairments who use a computer at school.
The biggest difference in computer use is noticed when examining computer use at home (among all working-age adults). Working-age adults with severe difficulties/impairments are far less likely to use computers at home than are those with no or mild difficulties/impairments. The differences in computer use by those with no, mild, or severe difficulties/impairments are not as distinct when examining computer use at work (among employed working-age adults) and at school (among adult students).
Employed working-age adults and adult students with severe difficulties/impairments are less likely to use computers at work and school. However, computer use is similar among those with mild and no difficulties/impairments at work (among employed working-age adults) and school (among working-age adult students). Indeed, among adult students, the likelihood of using computers at school is slightly higher among those with mild difficulties/impairments, which might reflect the uniqueness of adult students as a group or the success of adult educational institutions to increase access to all students.
Working-age adults who use a computer at work or school are more likely to use a computer at home as well; this is particularly true among individuals with mild or severe difficulties/impairments. Conversely, working-age adults who do not use a computer at work or school are less likely to use a computer at home.
Computer use rates among the different groups of working-age adults illustrate the extent of the "digital divide" for those with difficulties/impairments who are not employed or do not have access to a computer at work. Comparing the rates of computer use among working-age adults who do not use a computer at work shows that:
· Those with no difficulties/impairments are 25% less likely to use a computer at home than are working-age adults who use a computer at work.
· Those with mild difficulties/impairments are 33% less likely to use a computer at home than are working-age adults who use a computer at work.
· Those with severe difficulties/impairments are 46% less likely to use a computer at home than are working-age adults who use a computer at work.
This data shows the additional significance having a difficulty/impairment has on the use of computers among employed working-age adults.
Having a mild or severe difficulty/impairment is a factor that reduces computer use among working-age adults. The following findings examine additional factors that influence the use of computers, the current awareness and use of accessible technology, and factors that influence the use of accessible technology.
Computer Mathematics This Computer Mathematics course is intended to provide students with experiences in using the computer to solve problems which can be set up as mathematical models. Students who successfully complete the standards for this course may earn high school mathematics credit. It is recognized that many students will gain computer skills in other mathematics courses or in a separate curriculum outside of mathematics and prior to high school. In such cases, the standards indicated by an asterisk (*) should be included in the student's course of study and treated as a review for those students who enroll in Computer Mathematics. Even though computer ideas should be introduced in the context ofmathematical concepts, problem solving per se should be developed in the most general sense, making the techniques applicable by students in many other environments. Strategies include defining the problem; developing, refining, and implementing a plan; and testing and revising the solution. Programming, ranging from simple programs involving only a few lines to complex programs involving subprograms, should permeate the entire course. These standards identify fundamental principles and concepts in the field of computer science. Students will develop and refine skills in logic, organization, and precise expression that will enhance learning in other disciplines. The standards that follow are separated into two groups: those related to programming concepts-Standards 1 through 21-and those dealing with mathematical applications-Standards 22 and 24. This separation is not intended to suggest that they be treated separately in the instructional program. Programming concepts, problem-solving strategies, and mathematical applications should be integrated throughout the course. 8.3 USE OF WORLD WIDE WEB IN LEARNING AND APPLICATION OF MATHEMATICS
The use of the World Wide Web (WWW) as an instructional tool is gaining momentum as more teachers, instructors, and trainers incorporate it into their repertoire. Grouped together, any instruction that makes use of a computer is called Computer Based Training (CBT), and those strategies that employ the Web as the repository for instructional information are known as Web-Based Instruction (WBI). WBI can be employed in a distance education model or as an adjunct to teacher-led classrooms.
Specifically, WBI can be used to meet the needs of a more diverse student group. Typical classes consist of students with varying abilities and previous knowledge, and WBI can help a teacher address these differences. WBI also allows students to work a pace that is more comfortable - some students work faster than their peers while others may wish to take longer. In addition, the use of WBI provides the opportunity for multiple grade levels to be accommodated in the same classroom at the same time.
From a teacher's perspective, SBI can help with many daily management tasks by reducing the paper flow required for paper-based instruction, allowing for quick and easy revisions to instructional materials, and ensuring that instructional materials are always available to students. In addition, because the bulk of instruction is delivered via the Web, the teacher is free to spend time working with individual students and small groups; less time is spent in whole-class instruction.
An added bonus of Web-Based Instruction is the fact that it can offer students a "virtual teacher" because students can access the instructional materials anytime, anywhere. This allows students who were absent the opportunity to access instructional materials away from school, and even the possibility to accommodate students in a course when their schedule is full.
INTRODUCTION
Recent technological advances have created the possibility for new ways of learning and teaching. The Web has captured the imagination of more people than any other computer innovation (McCormack and Jones, 1998, p. xi). Taking full advantage of the potential of the Web requires teachers to think about learning and teaching in new ways, as well as to master the technology itself. The Web-based classroom can support an existing teaching method or be used as a replacement, but according to McCormack and Jones, the former is currently the most common (p. 2). As Rosen (1998) points out, however
"The World Wide Web is merely a tool, as is a chalkboard, overhead projector, or VCR. Tools don't teach. When effectively implemented they assist in the learning process. If learning on the part of the students has been helped by the use of a tool, then the tool has been used successfully." (p. 1)
There are reasons why the use of the Web in classrooms is not more widespread, including, but not limited to:
· knowledgeit is not a simple and straightforward task to create and maintain an extensive Web-based Instruction site;
· reluctancesome educators are hesitant to adopt new methods of instruction;
· resourcesfew schools can afford the time, support, training, and recognition for teachers who wish to pursue new methods of instruction; and,
· infrastructuresome schools simply do not have the resources to develop large computer infrastructures.
The solutions presented in this paper do not require a large investment in infrastructure. This paper presents one method of enhancing the instructional process through the use of Web-based Instruction.
What is Web-Based Instruction?
Web-based instruction has evolved from any number of computer-based instructional methods, often referred to as Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI), Computer-aided Instruction (CaI), Computer-Managed Instruction (CMI), Internet-Based Instruction (IBI), or Web-Based Instruction (WBI), but collectively called Computer-Based Education (CBE). For the purpose of this paper, CBE that uses the World Wide Web as a repository for instructional information and the Internet as the distribution channel for that content will be referred to as Web-Based Instruction (WBI). As McCormack and Jones (1998) wrote
"It means you can use the Web as a repository students can access to retrieve any information that would be useful to them. Not only can you use the Web to help distribute information - you can also place the information in a form that goes beyond text and takes advantage of the media that will help students understand better and to which they can relate more easily."
The emergence of the World Wide Web as a pipeline for learning will have a profound effect on the manner in which our students learn and we teach. As Koonce states
"From Web-based instruction and distance learning to virtual reality and online peer communities, training and technology are converging in rapid and radical ways. The convergence - speeded by the Internet and by the growth of company intranets and extranets - is having a revolutionary impact on both the nature of training and the skills that trainers will need to do their jobs in the next century. ... Are you ready for what these changes will mean to you? Are you becoming an expert at these new technologies and the new modalities of learning that are developing? Or is your idea of training still centered on the use of flipcharts and stand-up presentations, icebreaker exercises, and extensive lecture?"
Why use Web-Based Instruction?
There are a number of reasons why a teacher might choose to use Web-Based Instruction, including:
· enhancing student learning;
· spending more time with students working in small groups or one-on-one;
· reducing repetitive teaching tasks;
· reducing paper flow and management, and;
· providing improved instructional materials.
So why create Web-Based Instruction in your classroom? McCormack and Jones (1998) suggest that one reason for doing so is because "most educators aim to use a teaching method that is effective, efficient, and enjoyable. Using Web-Based instruction (WBI) is all of these things, but it is also pedagogically sound because it allows teachers to spend more time working with students in small groups and individually. WBI can begin to offer a variety of paths through the curriculum and offers students a self-paced learning environment, thus providing students with a sense of control over their learning. In addition, Web-Based Instruction facilitates multiple levels of instruction in one room with a single teacher. If implemented on the World Wide Web, students can have access to instructional materials at home. Because the instructional materials are stored and distributed electronically, Web-Based Instruction is also environmentally friendly, and there are not the management issues associated with paper-based instruction such as duplicating, revising, filing, and picking up after students. Students who miss school are also able to go to a Web site and find instructional materials they missed during their absence.
When used as an instructional tool, the Internet has the potential to meet the needs of a variety of students by presenting instructional materials to them in different ways, including a traditional linear form; or, with the addition of illustrations, video clips, and even sound, in such a manner that students can review or move ahead through content. Students need not follow a lock-step regimen to learning but are able to pursue learning in a self-paced manner. Bennett (1996) advocated this approach to teaching when he discussed the possibilities that computers in classrooms offer:
"Teaching to differing ability, background and interest has posed an eternal dilemma to educators. Instruction that is appropriate and beneficial to one student may have a negative effect on another. Teachers with a classroom of children know it is impractical to try to tailor lessons to each student. Personal attention, however, would be immensely helpful because of the varied needs of pupils. Some students require additional explanations, while others have grasped the material and are ready to go on. Since having forty million private instructors is impossible, compromises are necessary and teaching usually progresses at the average level of the class. Poorer students are left hanging in their confusion and the brightest students miss exciting challenges. With computers as tutors, the learning of one individual will never be hindered by the abilities and weaknesses of others. Each student will move at his or her own pace, unaffected by the rate of learning of any other student." (p. 31)
Throughout history teachers have used available technology for instructional purposes, including the use of slates and stylus, blackboards and chalk, video presentations and television, and computer-based instruction. In a report to the U.S. Congress titled Teachers and Technology: Making the Connection, the Office of Technology Assessment (1995) made this statement:
"First and foremost, teachers want to ensure that their students are learning. If technology can be a resource to enhance student achievement and interest in learning, teachers are more likely to invest the time and energy to learn to use it in their teaching. However, the relationship between technology and student learning is too often framed as a seemingly simple question: is teaching with computers and other technologies better than teaching without them?"
Teachers choose to use new technologies in order to enhance their teaching. Just as we added the written word to oratory, added books, began to use pen and paper, film and video tape, so will teachers add computer technology and the Internet to their repertoire. Further, the Office of Technology Assessment (1995) stated:
"Teachers use new technologies for the same reason they use books, worksheets, and other teaching tools to help students learn. Evidence from an array of studies indicates that technology in the classroom can have a positive impact on student learning, in terms of achievement in certain subject areas, development of skills, and attitudes towards school."
The central question for any teacher is, "How can this help my students?" As the Office of Technology Assessment (1995) report above mentioned:
"Although early research tended to focus on 'the computer' as an independent variable that somehow affects the learning process, it is becoming increasingly clear that technology, in and of itself, does not directly change teaching or learning. Rather, the critical element is how technology is incorporated into instruction."
Infrastructure Required for In-Class Web-Based Instruction
The purpose of this paper is to discuss Web-Based Instruction, rather than the infrastructure required to operate it. Any discussion about infrastructure could be a lengthy paper in itself, and any such discussion usually ends up in the politics of the institution and the usual discussion of support, speed, Windows versus Macintosh, acceptable use policies (AUP), access policies, and issues dealing with inappropriate use. It may not even be necessary to have a fast Internet connection, or even an active Internet connection to use WBI. If you have a LAN in your school, that may be all you need, and it is even possible to implement WBI in a stand-alone mode. So, for the purposes of understanding Web-Based Instruction in the course of this paper, we will not concern ourselves with connections, protocols, or bandwidth.
However, it must be stated that you will need some basic tools such as a Web browser and a simple text editor, if you want to create instructional Web pages, both of which are found on most computers.
CHAPTER 9
ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION WITH REFERENCE TO BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
9.1 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
The SOLO taxonomy provides an approach to both categorising cognitive performance in different content areas and defining curriculum objectives, which contain criteria for the levels of learning required (Biggs and Collis, 1989; Biggs, 1999). This model incorporates five modes of functioning parallel to a large extent the Piagetian stages of cognitive development. These modes are: sensorimotor
From Informal Proceedings 21-3 (BSRLM) available at bsrlm.org.uk © the author - 1
Winter, J. (Ed.) Proceedings of the British Society for Research into Learning Mathematics 21(3) November 2001 birth), ikonic (from around 18 months), concrete-symbolic (from around 6 years), formal (from around 16 years) and post formal (from about 20 years). Each mode is associated with a series of cumulative levels of response reflecting increasing complexity, ranging from prestructural to extended abstract; these are described below (adapted from Biggs and Collis 1982, 1989)
Prestructural: an incorrect datum is used in order to answer a question or respond to a problem, which may lead to an irrelevant aspect belonging to a previous stage of mode. The learner may even fail to engage in the problem, so he closes (or come to a conclusion of some kind) without even seeing the problem.
Unistructural: one relevant datum or feature is used and focused on to link the cue and response logically. The learner closes too quickly.
Multistructural: a number of relevant isolated data are used, but the learner doesn't integrate them.
Relational: the integration and synthesis of information is achieved. The relational response gives an overall concept or principle that accounts for the various isolated data, but it is still tied to concrete experience.: all the relevant data and their interrelations are taken up and subsumed under a hypothetical abstract structure that can enable deductions to apply to data or situations not experienced. Extended abstract responses are at a level of abstraction that is extended into the next mode. Biggs and Collis (1989) define the mode as "the level of abstraction that a learner uses when handling the elements of a task" (p.152). It is assumed that pupils in primary and secondary schools usually function in concrete-symbolic mode. This mode of operating is characterized by using symbolic systems that apply to the experienced world. The above five levels of SOLO are cumulative and reflect increasing complexity throughout each mode. The focus of learning is the target mode which encompasses the middle three levels: unistructural, multistructural and relational abstract.
The SOLO taxonomy has been applied to a variety of areas of mathematics (see, for example, Davey and Pegg 1989; Watson and Moritz 1998; and Chick 1998). Most of the earlier research on SOLO used the taxonomy to evaluate and classify learners' performance in terms of their exhibited structure into a hierarchy of levels of abstraction. However, SOLO can be used in other aspects of learning. In his recent work, Biggs (1999) argued that SOLO can be used to define curriculum objectives, which contain criteria for levels of understanding applied to the content in question.
9.2 DESIGNING THE EVALUATION SYSTEM &
DECIDING WHAT IDEAS TO ASSESS
Evaluation is estimation of something. Evaluation system should be such that it can judge the effectiveness of any educational institution (or a laboratory etc.) whether it has fulfilled its duties exactly or not. Evaluation system should judge whether curricular and co-curricular activities are effecting positively on the students mental and physical growth. This system should be such that might produce study interest in the students with different educational needs of the students. It can judge the effectiveness of different methods and techniques which are being used for different subjects.
It should produce awareness in the students by judging their individual differences, capabilities, aptitude and attitudes that what should they do in future. What kind of education should be given to them.
It should judge the merits and demerits of a educational curriculum, it should make the curriculum more interesting and useful for the students.
Evaluation system should be such that the teachers may judge their professional capabilities in the light of their student’s examination results. In this way they can improve their professional needs.
Evaluation system be such that by different kinds of tests of the students, it should give help to the parents to decide about the future life profession of their daughters and boys. These decisions should be according to the aptitude and abilities. Decisions should not be according to personal wishes of the parents.
Whether process or outcome, the steps involved in designing an evaluation are broadly similar. Clearly defined questions are the first step in ensuring that an evaluation remains focused. It is sometimes helpful to identify broad objectives for the evaluation and use these objectives as a basis for more specific research questions. Often questions are generated directly from issues identified during programme implementation.
There is a range of methods commonly used for answering questions in the evaluation. Quantitative methods (which answer ‘how many?’ questions) include questionnaire surveys and checklists. Qualitative methods (which focus on ‘how?’, ‘what?’, and ‘why?’ questions) include focus groups, semi-structured interviews and observation. Each method has strengths and weaknesses; the challenge is to identify the most appropriate method for the question. An evaluation question such as, ‘Did the training programme lead to increased capacity of trainers?’ might be answered through interviews with staff and focused discussions, as well as checklists. There may be ‘tried and tested’ tools for measuring capacity that can be adapted. Throughout, it is important to clearly define the terms used within the evaluation. In this example, ‘increased capacity’ should be broken down into specific measurable components (for instance ‘organizational strength’, ‘HIV/AIDS technical capacity’).
Consider who needs to be included as study participants and how they should be selected. The evaluation questions and choice of methods should guide these decisions. Quantitative methods generally involve a larger number of randomly selected respondents, whereas qualitative methods generally rely on a smaller number of respondents, selected for specific reasons (such as their involvement in an activity).
Assigning responsibilities, drafting a work plan and devising a budget for the evaluation are essential next steps. It may be that the design will have to be scaled down to fit with resource constraints (through ideally these constraints will have been borne in mind during the design phase). Consultant-led evaluations can be expensive, but may be useful where organisations do not have the time or resources to undertake the work themselves. It is often felt that an ‘outsider’ will be more objective, although this may depend how the consultant is being paid! In general, consultants are hired for outcome/impact evaluations, while process evaluations are often undertaken internally. Whether internally or externally led, a clear terms of reference, detailing expected outputs, is essential in avoiding disappointment with the final results. Good evaluations should make evidence- based and realistic recommendations for improved practice.
9.3 METHODS FOR CHECKING UP
CHILDREN’S IDEAS & PROCESS SKILLS
Children ideas and process skill can be checked by their efficiency by the following ways:
· Written
· Oral
· Practical
· Homework and Assignment
· Observation
· Interview
1. Written Examinations
It is formal way of taking examination in which students are asked to write answer of the questions. In this type of examination students do not know the questions formerly. They are not allowed to copy from any concerning material. Students write the answer using their memory. Written examination and way of testing has some problems such as
1. Way of marking differ from person to person.
2. Cramming tendency is produced in the student rather than concept formation and understanding.
3. Examination stress effects the performance of the students.
4. Handwriting counts much.
5. In a limited time of paper study of whole year is checked.
2. Oral Examination
In oral examination, the examiner asks verbal questions while the student sits in front of the examiner. In oral examination way of talking, speaking skill, comprehension, systematic way of learning, and knowledge counts much. In this type of examination, the examiner must be specialist and expert in the subject. Verbal examination causes mental stress on the students. In oral examination, examiner’s personal interest and opinion may effect the examination result. Some students suffer stammer while speaking, it hinders in this type of examination. Some students feel hesitation or shyness. This also effects in this way of examination. Oral questions should be according to the mental level of the students. Examiner should proceed from easy to difficult questions.
3. Practical Examinations
Practical examination is taken in the laboratories. Practical examinations are very important. This is the way of judgement while the students are working with the instruments. Results are very important. Observations and conclusion are written on the paper. Examiner marks the sheets and award marks of practical work. In this way of examination personal liking and disliking also effects the result.
4. Homework and Assignment
Homework and assignments are very necessary. ‘Homework’ is that work which a teacher assigns the students to do at home. This may be verbal work or written work. Textbook exercise work is often includes in it. The teacher checks and corrects it on the next day.
Assignment differs from homework. ‘Assignment’ is assigned to the students to get further knowledge by consulting libraries. Students consult different books and try to complete their work within the time limits. Teacher gives the assignment according to the interest, attitude, ability, etc. of the students. Assignment technique helps the students to study themselves. That is why they take interest in Research work.
5. Observation
Teacher provides atmosphere of learning. Students are asked to get information by observation. He may take the students to a field trip and ask them to write their observations in a worksheet. This type of observation has a positive result on the behaviour, attitude and personality of the students.
Teacher checks the observations and gives his report on a ‘checklist’ or rating scale. During study year student’s behaviour, his/her cooperation, his/her dealings, his presence in the college/school, important features of his personality etc. are reported in the ‘checklist’ or ‘rating scale’.
6. Interview
Interview is the conversation between advisor and the person seeking advice. It is mostly questioning answering process.
In this process often students tell their problems and seek advice from their teachers. In some interviews the interviewer comes prepared with some burning questions. He tries to focus on some problem questions and gets advise to solve them. Students often get educational guidance in this way.
7. Assessing Laboratory Activities
Laboratory settings can provide students with the opportunity to apply their content understanding in new situations and apply the skills that geoscientists use when working with Earth materials, images and data sets. Laboratory work usually entails an element group work, so let’s begin with some of the differences between individual and group assessment. Usually laboratory settings are favourable for small group, collaborative work. This work increases communication and application of content knowledge to the task at hand. Before planning an assessment strategy decide if roles in the group are going to be interchangeable, that is, will each student be expected to know every role, or will you ask students to become “experts” in one facet of the group effort. Assessment of the content element can either be performed individually for each group member and the group process grade factored in or alternately, the instructor may assess both content and process for each group as a whole.
Assessing a Group Activity Using Global Carbon Dioxide Data
The activity Carbon Dioxide Exercise introduces students to the process of plotting and interpreting graphs. The exercise has several learning objectives. These are:
· Estimate changes in global carbon dioxide concentrations over a 5-year span.
· Learn about variation in the carbon cycle driven by photosynthesis.
· Understand how important sampling interval can be when studying changes over time.
· Practice basic quantitative skills.
For this assessment model let’s assume that we will assess each group on the process of developing a graph and individually on the writing of a reflection/ response to the Mona Loa data set. Groups will be directly assessed as they plot their data points and produce a transparency to place on an overhead projector. A lecture will follow using the student-developed graphs as a springboard for understanding the variability of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration. For homework, students will need to develop a paragraph summarizing what they have learned about the Mauna Loa data set. If the students are given the assessment criteria prior to writing the summary they will know what will be assessed and the products will be easier for the instructor to grade. What will those criteria be?
9.4 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
► According to ‘Angelo’
“Formative Assessment is often done at the beginning or during a program, thus providing the opportunity for immediate evidence for student learning in a particular cou
► According to ‘Gronlund’
“Formative Assessment is evaluatoin of work while it is in process of being carried out so that the assessment effect the development of work.”rse or at a particular point in a program”.
► Classroom assessment is one of the most common formative assessment techniques. The purpose of this technique is to improve quality of student learning and should not be evaluative or involve grading students. This can also lead to curricular modifications when specific courses have not met the student learning outcomes. ► Classroom assessment can also provide important program information when multiple sections of a course are taught because it enables programs to examine if the learning goals and objectives are met in all sections of the course. It also can improve instructional quality by engaging the faculty in the design and practice of the course goals and objectives and the course impact on the program.
► Black and William (1998b) define assessment broadly to include all activities that teachers and students undertake to get information that can be used diagnostically to alter teaching and learning.
Purpose and Benefits of Formative Assessment
1. Assessment encompasses teacher observation, classroom discussion, and analysis of student work, including homework and tests. Assessments become formative when the information is used to adopt teaching and learning to meet student needs.
2. When teachers know how students are progressing and where they are having trouble, they can use this information to make necessary instructional adjustments, such as (i) reteaching (ii) trying alternative instructional approaches, (iii) offering more opportunities for practice. These activities can lead to improve student success.
3. Black and William (1998a) conducted an extensive research review of 250 journals, articles to determine whether formative assessment raises academic standards in the classroom. They concluded that efforts to strengthen formative assessment produce significant learning, with formative assessment apparently helping low achieving students, including students with learning disabilities, even more than it helped other students (Black and William 1998b).
4. Feedback given as part of formative assessment helps learners become aware of any gaps that exists between their desired goal and their current knowledge, understanding, or skill and guides them through actions necessary to obtain the goal (Ramaprasad, 1983; Sadler, 1989).
5. The most helpful type of feedback on tests and homework provides specific comments about errors and specific suggestion for improvement and encourages students to focus their attention thoughtfully on the task rather than on simply getting the right answer (Bangert-Drowns, Kulick, & Morgan, 1991; Elawar & Corno, 1985). 6. This type of feedback may be particularly helpful to lower achieving students because it emphasizes that students can improve as a result of effort rather than be doomed to low achievement due to some presumed lack of ability.
7. Formative assessment helps support the expectation that all children can learn to high level and counteracts the cycle in which students attribute poor performance to lack of ability and therefore become discouraged and unwilling to invest in further learning (Ames, 1992; Vispoel & Austin 1995).
8. While feedback generally originates from a teacher, learners can also play an important role in formative assessment through self-evaluation. Two experimental research studies have shown greater improvement than those who do not.
Resources for Teachers interested In formative Assessment
1. Two practitioner-oriented books that offer many helpful ideas about, and examples of classroom assessments are
(i) A Practical Guide to Alternative Assessment (Herman, Aschbacher, and Winter)
(ii) Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for College Teachers (Angelo & Cross 1993)
2. The Northwest Regional educational Laboratory has put large sections of its helpful training kit, improving Classroom Assessment: A Toolkit for Professional Developers online. The readings, overhead exercises and handouts could help groups of teachers think through assessment issues in their schools.
3. A recent issue of the Maryland Classroom newsletter from the Maryland State Department features a lead article on effective feedback in the classroom with example responses from an assignment involving persuasive text.
4. The National Research Council (2001) has produced a useful, accessible book on classroom assessment in science that contains many interesting vignettes about how teachers can adjust their teaching based on their observations, questioning, and analysis of student work. Teaching and professional development in the areas of classroom assessment are essential in order to provide individual teachers with the time and support necessary to make changes. Teachers need time to assessment practices and benefit from observing and consulting with other teachers about effective practices
5. About changes they would like to make black and Wiliam (1998b) recommend setting up local group of schools-elementary and secondary; urban rural-to tackle formative assessment at the school level while collaborating with other local schools, they anticipate that challenges will be different in different subject areas and suggest that external evaluators could help teachers with their work and collect evidence of effectiveness. They also point to potential conflicts between state formative assessments, where the external tests can shape what goes on in the classroom in a negative way if the emphasis is in drill and test preparation versus teachers’ best judgement about learning.
6. Teachers generally need to undertake or participate in some summative assessment as basics for reporting grades or meeting accountability standards. However, the task of summative assessment purposes remains quite different from the task of formative assessment to monitor and improve progress. While state tests provide a snapshot of a student’s performance on a given day understand test conditions formative assessment allows teachers to monitor and guide students’ performance overtime in multiple problem-solving situations.
7. Future research might examine how teachers deal with their formative and summative roles, how teachers’ classroom assessments relate to internal test results and how external test results can be made more helpful in terms of improving students performance.
9.5 SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
► According to ‘Gronlund’:
“Summative assessment is evaluation of work of the course at the end of the programme . It is taken to measure the rate of progress of the educational objectives. Due to this assessment grades of the programs are awarded to the students.”
► According to ‘Anglo and Cross’:
“Summative assessment is taken at the end of the program to ensure that students have met the program goals and objectives. Attention should be given to using various methods and measures in order to have a comprehensive plan.”
► Upon completion of a program students will have the knowledge to pass an accreditation test, taking the test would be summative in nature since it is based on the cumulative learning experience.
► The foundation for an assessment plan is to collect Summative assessment data and this type of data can stand-alone.
► According to ‘Anglo T.A., and Cross K.P’
“Summative assessment data contribute to a comprehensive assessment plan”.
Purpose and Benefits of Summative Assessment
1. Summative assessment is comprehensive in nature, provides accountability and is used to check the level of learning at the end of the program”.
2. Due to this assessment grades of the programs are awarded to the students.
3. Main aim of Summative Assessment is to award Certificates and Degrees.
4. It is taken to measure the rate of progress of the educational objectives.
5. The students achieve program goals and objectives
9.6 EVALUATION METHODS
A guiding principle throughout the development has been attention to evaluation – particularly by the end-users (the teachers, school leaders, and students). The themes of usability, interoperability, training, value, and accuracy have also been guiding principles, along with a rigorous measurement theory underlying the development of the items, scoring, and test creation. This article outlines the multiplicity of evaluation methods relating to teacher and student evaluation of the test materials, the accuracy and added value of the reports, the reactions and effects of the professional development, and the evaluation of the utility of the software. Unlike many evaluations of tests, the current study is as concerned with the consequences of the tests (Messick, 1989), and specifically with how teachers are using, interpreting, and modifying their thinking and teaching as a function of using the asTTle tool.
Methods
In order to evaluate the product, standards against which user experience could be evaluated were developed. In these evaluation studies, the developers focused on the first three of Lesgold’s (2003) standards for mature software. Specifically, the ability to inter-operate with other software in the environment, the provision of training, and the interface’s features (i.e., is it easily mastered, understood, and used?). Baker (2005) suggested that efficiency and quality are required of technology in order to add educational value. The validity, accuracy, and utility of a technology contribute to determining its quality. The evaluations conducted by the asTTle development team were designed to determine the following aspects of the system:
Validity. The items and materials used as assessments had to have integrity within both the curriculum and teacher classroom realities.
Utility. The software had to be easy to use especially as its use was voluntary—if the technology adopted made it difficult to use, then it would be unlikely that the product would be of much value This included the requirement for compatibility or interoperability with other school technology systems and for the system to be resilient as it was developed (Baker, 2005).
Added Value. The system had to create value for the teachers; if asTTle did not ease workload or improve the quality of teacher decision-making then, no matter how easy it might be to use, it would be of lesser value, and less likely to be used.
Accuracy. The developers, having designed and implemented creative reporting mechanisms, needed to know whether users were interpreting and using the educational reports correctly.
Training. The professional development processes and resources employed to enable users in implementing the product well had to be effective.
In order to determine whether the asTTle software met these objectives, multiple studies using multiple methods were conducted. Questionnaire surveys were used to elicit from teachers their evaluations of the asTTle test questions, tasks, and instructions. Similarly, students were surveyed about their opinions of the test materials at the end of a trial test. Focus groups and survey questionnaires were used to determine the accuracy of understanding teachers had of the asTTle reports. Telephone interviews, questionnaire surveys, and field visits were used to examine the effectiveness of the professional development resources and processes and the software itself. Thus, this article reports a series of management-oriented evaluations conducted by the development team for the purpose of improving the quality of the product and the supporting training materials and processes supplied with the product.
Results
Results for this series of evaluations are reported in four sections. Section 1 summarizes teacher and student feedback as to the qualities of the asTTle test materials. Section 2 summarizes findings about teacher understanding of the asTTle reports. Section 3 reports findings about the professional training and support processes, while Section 4 reports results about school uses of the asTTle software.
Validity—Teachers’ & Students’ Evaluations of the asTTle Test Materials.
Student Evaluations
Additionally, in four subjects a sample of students completed a set of ten items in which they rated the quality of the items from their own perspectives. By subject the following approximate numbers of students provided data: mathematics 1000, reading 1400, pānui 1800, and tuhituhi 1300. Students responded to the items by indicating the degree to which they agreed with the statement with a positively packed rating scale (1 = Strongly disagree to 6 = Strongly agree, with two points expressing disagreement and four points for agreement) (see Brown, 2004a for details). Maximum likelihood factor analysis with direct oblimin rotation was conducted with the 10 items for each subject. The resulting scale scores were calculated and used to infer student evaluation of the asTTle materials.
Mathematics. A three factor solution (i.e., Student Enjoyment, Layout of the Test, and Student Confidence to do the Questions) was found. Students expressed only slight agreement (M = 2.87, SD = 1.30) with the factor related to student enjoyment in doing the questions and test and gave almost the identical level of agreement (M = 2.90, SD = 1.01) to their confidence in doing the assessment items. The students barely enjoyed doing the tests and were also only just confident that they could do the questions. In contrast, students moderately agreed with the layout of the paper and the use of white space (M = 4.30, SD = 1.24), supporting asTTle’s layout design of pages. The negative response indicated that despite best efforts of the asTTle developers, students perceived that the items were challenging and thus not really enjoyable. Under operational conditions, teachers would be able to adjust the difficulty and challenge of an asTTle test to meet the students’ lack of confidence. It should also be noted that mathematics is the only area in the asTTle testing where the norm population exhibited an inverse relationship between confidence and achievement, a result echoed by this finding. In other words, New Zealand (NZ) students who are good at mathematics still lack confidence in their own abilities and thus were daunted by the challenge embedded in the trial tests. It is expected that in classroom operation, teachers will be able to address this psychology before test administration.
Reading. A three factor solution (i.e., Student Enjoyment of the Material and Its Layout, Difficulty of the Materials, and Test-Likeness of the Experience) was found. Students expressed between slight and moderate agreement (M = 3.53, SD = 1.08) that they had enjoyed the tests and their appearance, and gave a similar rating (M = 3.43, SD = .68) to the idea that the tests were harder than those they had already done in class. They gave a slightly stronger rating (M = 4.30, SD = 1.24) to the idea that the asTTle test felt like a test on which they exerted their best effort. Unlike mathematics, these students were somewhat more positive about their ability to do the items. The reading students’ overall opinion of the test fell between the mathematics students’ ratings about the layout and design of the test and their enjoyment in doing the tests—a somewhat similar result as the reading factor contained both those concepts.
Pānui. A two factor solution (i.e., Test Difficulty, and Student Enjoyment of the Test and Its Layout) was found. Almost identical scores at the level of moderate agreement were found (M = 3.99, SD = 1.33 and M = 3.97, SD = 1.13 respectively). In other words, the Māori students found the tests about as enjoyable, but somewhat harder than the English-medium reading students found their tests.
Tuhituhi. A three factor solution (i.e., Enjoyable Test, Beneficial Use of Space, Confidence in Doing Well) was found. The students gave moderate levels of agreement to all three factors (M = 4.20, SD = 1.13; M = 4.24, SD = 1.38; M = 3.95, SD = 1.25 respectively). These values are fundamentally the same as the pānui and reading values and confirm that the students perceived enjoyment in doing the asTTle test, liked the use of white space on the test forms, and thought that they could do well.
These studies confirmed what the teachers had reported earlier—students were generally favorably disposed towards doing the tests, liked the use of white space, and were reasonably confident of doing well. The exception to this pattern is the mathematics students who were considerably less confident in their ability to perform well on the test and who did not enjoy the testing process. The developers took that negative message to be a consequence of a centrally designed test being applied randomly and seemingly arbitrarily on students and that operational implementation of asTTle would result in teachers validating each test for their own students prior to administration.
CHAPTER 10
LESSON PLANNING AND DELIVERY
10.1 WHAT IS LESSON PLANNING?
Before teaching a lesson it is necessary to know about the following:
1. What 2. Why 3.When 4. How
Fourth point indicates how to each a lesson. For effecting teaching preparation of lesson before teaching is an important factor. Lesson planning is actually the detail of teaching activities, which is to be performed in the classroom. To obtain objectives we have to teach a lesson with suitable teaching method teaching techniques and using skills. Lesson plan indicates all the steps to be performed in the classroom, verbal planning is never successful, written lesson planning is always successful. The teacher can cover all the aspects of the lesson if they are written. Detail of lesson planning will be mentioned in the components of lesson planning.
Importance of lesson planning
Importance of lesson planning is given below
1. By suitable lesson planning, teacher gets help in teaching different aspects of lesson.
2. Teachers and taught become clear about the objectives of teaching.
3. It is helpful in choosing suitable skills, techniques and teaching methods.
4. He has to go through the lesson before teaching.
5. Teacher becomes confident about the delivering of lesson because he has to go through the lesson before teaching.
6. Teaching becomes aware of all the difficulties before the lesson.
7. Lesson can be completed in less time.
8. Time is not wasted.
9. There is continuity in the lesson.
10. Teacher is no derailed from the topic.
10.2 QUALITIES OF A GOOD LESSON PLAN:
Lesson plan should consist the following good qualities.
1. Objectives of the lesson teaching should be obvious.
2. It should be according to the psychology of the students.
3. Its should clarify the previous information and knowledge.
4. It should be according to the students interest.
5. All the points/steps should be obviously written.
6. Questions should be effective and understandable.
7. Teaching skills, techniques, methods should be explained clarify.
8. There should be continuity in the lesson.
9. There should be no repetition in the questions.
10. Questions should be according to the students mental level.
11. Question should be not complicated.
12. Audio visual aids should be mentioned on the suitable situation.
13. Lesson should be from know to unknown and from concrete to the abstract.
10.3 LESSON PLAN COMPONENTS:
(Herberton Style)
To begin, ask yourself three basic questions:
q Where are your students going?
q How are they going to get there?
q How will you know when they’ve arrived?
Then begin to think about each of the following categories, which form the organization of the plan, Which planning, use the questions below to guide you during each stage.
(1) GENERAL OBJECTIVES:
General objectives points towards goals and aims. Goals determine purpose, aim, and rationale for what you and your students will engage in during class time. Use this section to express the intermediate lesson goals that draw upon previous plans and activities and set the stage by preparing students for future activities and further knowledge acquisition. The goals are typically written as broad educational or unit goals adhering to state or National curriculum standard.
What are the broader objectives, aims, or goals of the unit plan/curriculum?
What are you goals for this unit?
What do you expect students to be able to do by the end of this unit?
(2) SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:
This section focuses only on what your students will do to acquire further knowledge and skills. The objectives for the daily lesson plan are drawn from the broader aims of the unit plan but are achieved on well defined time period.
What will students be able to do during this lesson?
Under what conditions will students performance will be accomplished?
What is the degree or criterion on the basis of which satisfactory attainment of the objectives will be judged?
How will students demonstrate that they have learned and understood the objectives of the lesson?
(3) PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE TESTING:
Previous knowledge testing is very necessary. To teach any topic teacher must inquire the student’s basic and previous knowledge. This indicates the teacher from where to start a lesson.
(4) MATERIALS (Teaching Aids)
This section has two functions: it helps other teachers quickly determine:
a) How much preparation time, resources, and management will be involved in carrying out this plan and
b) What materials, books, equipment, and resources they will need to have ready.
So a list of everything needed, full citations of textbooks or story books used, and any other special considerations are most useful.
What Materials will be needed?
What textbooks or storybooks? (Please include full bibliographic citations)
What needs to be prepared in advance? (Typical for science classes and cooking or baking activities)
(5) LESSON DESCRIPTION (Introduction)
This section provides an opportunity for the author of the lesson to share some thoughts, experience, an advice with other teachers. It also provides a general overview of the lesson in terms of topic focus activities and purpose.
What is unique about this lesson?
How did your students like it?
What level of learning is covered by this lesson plan? Think of Bloom’s Taxonomy, Knowledge, comprehension, application, synthesis, or evaluation?
(6) LESSON PROCEDURE (Presentation)
In presentation, new ideas and content is introduced. Activities are performed. This section provides a detailed, step-by-step description of how to replicate the lesson and achieve less plan objectives. This is usually intended for the teacher and provides suggestions on how to proceed with implementation of the lesson plan. It also focuses on what the teacher should have students do during the lesson. This section is basically divided into several components an introduction, a main activity, and closure. There are several collaborations on this. Several examples should be given students must be involved in doing different things. Audio visual Aids must be used in an organised and systemised way.
MAIN ACTIVITY:
What is the focus of the lesson?
How would you describe the flow of the lesson to another teacher who will replicate it?
What does the teacher do to facilitate learning and manage the various activities?
What are some good and bad examples to illustrate what you are presenting to students.?
How can this material be presented to ensure each student will benefit from the learning experience.?
RULE OF THUMB # 1:
Take into consideration what students are learning (a new skill, a rule a formula, a concept/fact/idea, an attitude, or a value).
Choose one of the following techniques to plan the lesson content based on what your objectives are:
q Demonstration ® List in detail and sequence of the steps to be performed.
q Explanation ® Outline the information to be explained.
q Discussion ® List of key questions to guide the discussion.
(7) CLOSURE/CONCLUSION:
Teachers and Taught should reach a certain suitable conclusion.
What will you use to draw the ideas together for the students at the end?
How will you provide feedback to students to correct their misunderstandings and reinforce their learning.
(8) APPLICATION:
After deriving any formula at must be applied to solve problems.
(9) FOLLOW UP LESSONS ACTIVITIES:
What activities might you suggest for enrichment and remediation?
What lessons might follow as a result of this lesson?
(10) ASSESSMENT/EVALUATION/
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
This section focuses on ensuring that your students have arrived at their intended destination. You will need together some evidence that they did. This usually is done by gathering students work and assess this work using some kind of grading rubric that is based on lesson objectives. You could also replicate some of the activities practiced as part of the lesson, but without providing the same level of guidance as during the lesson. You could always quiz them on various concepts and problems as well.
How will you evaluate the objectives that were identified?
Have students practiced what you are asking them to do for evaluation?
RULE OF THUMB # 2:
Be sure to provide students with the opportunity to practice what you will be assessing them on. You should never introduce new material during this activity. Also, avoid asking of them higher level thinking if they have not engaged in it during practice. So, for example, if you expect them to apply knowledge a skills, they should first be provided with the opportunity to practice application.
(11) HOMEWORK:
Students must be given homework, so that they remain busy at work and solve some problems themselves. It will give them confidence.
10.4 DELIVERY OF LESSON:
Presentation of a lesson is called delivery of lesson. For a nice delivery, teacher must have the following qualities.
1. KNOWLEDGE OF A TOPIC:
Teachers should fully prepared to give their lessons. He should consult different Books to fully handle the topic.
2. CONFIDENCE:
He should deliver his lesson with confidence. Otherwise students will not listen him with attention.
3. USE OF AUDIO VISUAL AIDS:
For a successful lesson teachers should use the A.V.Aids to the situation.
4. PRACTICE:
He should exercise his teaching style at home. He must practice of teaching before delivering of his lesson.
5. CONTINUITY:
He should deliver his lecture with continuity. So that none of the topic is left behind.
6. WELL ORGANISED:
The teacher should be well organised his lesson before teaching. Everything should be told the student in an organised way.
7. TIME ALLOCATED LECTURE:
Teacher should deliver and complete his lesson in the time limits.
8. USE OF TEACHING TECHNIQUES:
While delivering a lecture teacher must use techniques of teaching for a nice lecture.
9. BODY LANGUAGE:
Movements of hands should be according to the words spoken while teaching should mostly face towards students. He should not lecture from one corner of the classroom towards other. His lectures should according to his speech.
10. VOICE:
He should speak with suitable vocal card & while delivering a lecture. Avoid Jargon.
11. NERVE CONTROL:
A lecture should teach confidently. He should have control in his nerves.
12. QUESTIONING:
Questioning is very effective techniques of teaching while delivering a lesson. Always ask proper questions. There should be short discussion while questioning.
10.5 LESSON PLAN FORMATS
LESSON PLAN FORMAT
UNIT:
GRADE:
LESSON:
THEME OR TOPIC:
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
EQUIPMENT:
TIME LESSON CONTENT TEACHING POINTS &
ORGANIZATION
Introductory Activities/ Warm-Up
Skill Development Concept
Culminating Activity
Closure
Evaluation
Class: ___________ Unit: ____________
Lesson #: _____________
Topic: _______________
Intended Learning Outcomes (TSWBT):
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Administration:
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Warm Up
Activity:______________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
How did the lesson go notes
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
Board Stuff (rules/cues).
Equipment
Time:
Lesson Development:
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
______________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
______________________________________________
_____________________________________________
______________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
______________________________________________
A MODEL LESSON PLAN
Teacher _________________________ Topic ______________
Subject ___________________________ Class ______________
Average Age ______________________
1. General Instructional objectives.
2. Specific learning outcomes.
3. Rationale.
4. Materials and Aids
5. Contents and Activities.
6. Instructional Procedure.
(a) Focusing Events
(b) Teaching Procedure
(c) Formative Check
(d) Students Participation
(e) Conclusion.
(f) Application
7. Assessment/Review
8. Notes
LESSON PLAN FORMAT
Subject ___________________ Topic ___________________
Class ___________________ Time ___________________
1. OUTCOMES
What will be the end result of the lesson?
(a) _____________________
(b) _____________________
(c) _____________________
2. Teacher – led activities (introductory lessons).
Determine how you will introduce the lesson and set the stage to actively engage the students.
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
3. Student – centred activities.
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
4. Resources needed.
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
5. Students Assessment Strategy.
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
6. Home Assignment.
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
10.6 LESSONS PLANS
LESSON PLAN 1
TITLE: ABILITY OF ADDITION
LEVEL Class 2
TIME 40 minutes
GENERAL OBJECTIVES:
(i) To produce thinking ability
(ii) Understanding power
(iii) To produce inquiring ability.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:
Ability of Addition
MATERIAL NEEDED:
(i) Recording Sheets
(ii) Die
(iii) Spinner
PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE:
Students can count .
PRESENTATION:
Students will be divided into the groups of “5” steps.
1. Each player makes recording sheet, for a game of three rounds.
2. To begin the game, one player rolls the die or spins the spinner.
3. All players write the number in a square on their first chart. Once a number is recorded, it cannot be changed.
4. Another player now rolls or spins to generate a number for everyone to record in an other square. Take turns rolling or spinning until players have filled all nine squares on their charts. Each group will complete their own sheet.
5. Players then find the sums of the rows, columns, and diagonal, and record them in the respective circles.
3
2
4
1
5
4
2
6
2
6. Check the sum written in each circle. Cross the wrong answers and tick the correct answers.
6. Total number of correct answers will be the score of a group. Check the sheets of all groups.
7. Play two more rounds. Then compare totals.
EXTENSIONS:
Using the numbers 1 to 9 each what is the highest score you can …..
LESSON PLAN 2
TITLE: EQUIVALENT FRACTION
GRADE LEVEL: Appropriate for grades 4
OVERVIEW:
Most students will benefit from the use of physical objects when they are introduced to the concept of equivalent fractions. This activity was designed to show the students that the notion of several names for a number is similar to the notion of several names for a person. One of them is the “given name”. In the same way that we refer to “Rebecca Smith, alias Becky Smith”, we can refer to “1/2, alias 3/6”.
OBJECTIVES:
Students will be able on:
1. Write a fraction to tell what part of a region is shaded.
2. Name the numerator and denominator of a fraction.
3. Identify equivalent fractions.
RESOURCES/MATERIALS:
Rectangular pieces of paper, chalkboard, chalk.
PRESENTATION
ACTIVITIES AND PROCEDURES:
1. Concept Of Faction:
(i) Provide each student with a piece of rectangular paper. Fold the paper in half. After you have folded the paper in half, instruct the students to do the same. Explain that a fraction is a part of a whole. You have divided a whole piece of paper into two equal parts.
(ii)Instruct the students to colour one of the two equal parts. Ask a student to write ½ on the board to show that one out of the two equal parts is now shaded.
(iii)Introduce the vocabulary words numerator and denominator. The numerator is the number of parts shaded and the denominator is the total number of equal parts. (For those students who have difficulty remembering which is the numerator and which is the denominator, try this memory association technique ….. In a fraction, one number is up above the line and one is down below the line. Numerator has an “u” in it and so does up; denominator begins with “d” and so does down.)
(iv)Repeat the same activity with pieces of paper, demonstrating 1/4, 3/4, 1/3, 1/8. Each time, a student should write the fraction on the board and identify the numerator and the denominator. If you prefer, project a rectangle on the overhead projector and divide the rectangle into the same fractions as those in the paper – folding
2. Equivalent Fraction:
(i)Ask students to fold a rectangular sheet of paper in half and colour one of the equal parts. Ask what fraction of the paper is coloured (1/2).
(ii)Now have then refold the same paper and then fold it in half once again unfold. How many equal parts now? (4) What of shading has not changed, this means that 1/2=2/4. Tell students that 1/2 and 2/4 are two names for the same amount. Therefore, they are equivalent.
(iv) Now have students refold the papers and then fold in half a third time. Unfold. What new fraction have they found that is equivalent to 1/2 and 2/4? (4/8) These three fractions name the same amount.
1/2=2/4=4/8
3. CONCLUSION:
Different Fractions for the same amount are called Equivalent Fractions.
4. APPLICATION:
Ask the students to find Equivalent Fractions of ¼ by folding the paper. They will find that
¼=2/8=3/12=4/15/20
TYING IT ALL TOGETHER:
Once students have a firm understanding of equivalent fractions, they will be ready to find “another name” for a fraction by multiplying or dividing the numerator and denominator by the same (nonzero) number. This emphasis on equivalent fractions will pay dividends when you begin teaching addition and subtraction of fractions with unlike denominators.
HOME WORK:
Solve the problems of Exercise 4.1 of your Text Book.
LESSON PLAN 3
TITLE: AREA OF RECTANGLE
GRADE LEVEL: 5 TIME: 40 MINUTES
OVERVIEW:
Students sometime need a break from paper and pencil math problems in order to keep them interested and stimulated in math. For some kids certain math concepts are too abstract and need to be made more hands on.
PURPOSE:
Many students have a difficult time understanding the concepts of area. Textbooks have pictures which don’t always allow the students to grasp the ideas. This activity takes away the abstract idea and replaces it with a concrete model.
OBJECTIVE (S):
Students will be able to describe area and also be able to understand how various units are set.
RESOURCE/MATERIALS:
Newspaper, scissors, masking tape, rulers, and meter sticks, cardboard (and something to cut it with), markers to identify finished models.
PRESENTATION
ACTIVITIES AND PROCEDURES:
Following is an introduction to area .Students will work in groups to build models of square centimetre, square inches, square feet and square meters. This becomes a good cooperative team effort at problem solving. Students are provided with materials, but no initial instruction is given.
In two dimensional figure, measurement of the space in a closed figure is called area.
Generally we take unit of area 1 square centimetre i.e. 1 cm2.
1 cm2
1 cm
1 cm
Step – 1 Take a rectangle shown below:
2 cm
6 cm
Count 1 square centimetres in this rectangle.
There are 12 sq. cm.
Hence its area is 12 sq. cm.
We can also write it as follows
2 cm ´ 6 cm = 12 cm2
Step – 2 Take a following rectangle:
3 cm
7 cm
Count 1 square centimetres in this rectangle.
There are 21 sq. cm.
Hence its area is 21 sq. cm.
We can also write it as follows
3cm ´ 7 cm = 21 cm2
Therefore we reach a generalization that if length is multiplied with breadth we get the area of rectangle.
CONCLUSION:
Thus the following formula or generalization is arrived at:
Area of a Rectangle= Length ´ Breadth
HOME WORK:
Solve the problems of exercise 6.1 of your text book at home.
TYING IT ALL TOGETHER:
This activity leaves students with a lasting memory of these ideas, which are otherwise hard to grasp.
LESSON PLAN 4
TITLE: AVERAGE
Grade Level 5
General Objectives:
(i) To produce thinking ability
(ii) Understanding power
(iii) To produce inquiring ability.
Specific Objectives: The students will be able to find average of numbers.
PRESENTATION:
Step1:Give 3, 5 and 7 things to three students individually, and then ask them to divide the things equally among themselves. For this purpose they will first calculate the total number of things and then divide the total number by the number of students.
Step2: Again give 3, 6, 7 and 8 things to four students individually. To divide the things equally among themselves, they will first calculate the total number of things and then divide this total by the number of students. Another similar concrete case may be taken.
Step3: The generalisation can be made on these cases. It may be introduced to them that this equal quantity is known as the average. To calculate this average they have to first calculate the sum of the given quantity, and then to divide this sum by the number of quantities.
CONCLUSION: Thus the following formula or generalization is arrived at:
There can be many more examples to illustrate the procedure to be followed in this method.
APPLICATION:. Ask students to apply the deduced formula and solve the following problems::
Problem1:
Sum of five numbers is 625. Find the average of numbers.
Solution:
Total rainfall is given and number of days are known.
Problem2
Waqas spent Rs.150 in one day, Rs.310 in 2nd day, Rs.250 in third day and Rs.200 on fourth day. Find the average expenditure of each day.
Solution:
The detail of expenditure is given as follows:
HOME WORK: Solve the problems of exercise 4.1 of your text book at home.
LESSON PLAN 5
TITLE: ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION GAME
GRADE/LEVEL APPROPRIATE FOR GRADES 2
TIME : 40 MINUTES
OVER VIEW:
A group activity that provides review and drill in the format of a game for learning facts in subtraction and addition. Appeals to multilevel and multi grade situation. The students get so caught up in the game they consider it an exciting challenge rather than a drill or review.
OBJECTIVES (S):
1. Practice addition and subtraction facts and processes.
2. Use accuracy in adding and subtracting.
3. Develop speed when adding and subtracting.
4. Understand the concepts of adding and subtracting.
RESOURCES/MATERIALS:
1. A die
2. Lined paper
3. Pencil
PRESENTATION ACTIVITIES AND PROCEDURES:
1. Draw on the board three parallel lines then two intersecting lines. Place a “+” or “-“ sign next to the second parallel line. What you have made is a grid of empty boxes, with three boxes in each of the three rows.
2. Have the students copy this onto their papers.
3. Explain to the students that you are going to roll to die and the number that is rolled is to be place into one of the squares in the top two rows. The bottom row is for the answer. The die will be rolled until the empty boxes in all the rows, except the bottom row, are filled.
4. They are then to work the problem.
5. The object of the game is to get the highest number if adding or the lowest number if subtracting.
6. While the students are putting your numbers on to their paper you are also playing by putting your numbers into the squares on the board. (I found this to help the slower, students, and the quick students try to beat you.)
7. Then ask if anyone repeat your answer. The best answer is written on the board and anyone with that answer receives a point.
8. Create smaller or larger grids to adapt to your students level.
TYING IT ALL TOGETHER:
This should be a group “fun” activity. Not only does it give them a relaxed environment to practice the skills they’ve learned but it gives you a chance to evaluate their progress.
CHECK PAPERS FOR:
1. Accuracy
2. Concepts learned
3. Speed
LESSON PLAN 6
TITLE: THE SQUARES OF NUMBERS IN
MULTIPLICATION
GRADE LEVEL 3
Second grade or early third grade mathematics.
OVERVIEW:
As students begin memorizing the multiplication with facts, they need many different ways of visualizing and practicing the multiplication concepts. They might begin practicing with arrays skip counting, and moving manipulative for the 0,1,2,3, and 4 times tables before they begin this lesson.
PURPOSE:
It is easy enough for students to memorize 3´3 = 9, 4´4 = 16, etc, but this lesson gives a visual image for these simple patterns that will facilitate learning other patterns for the multiplication tables and extend to later math concepts.
OBJECTIVES:
The learner will be able to: 1, memorize the multiplication math facts for a number times itself 1 – 10, 2, construct a visual image for these math facts, 3, label the shape created and predict the shape of other numbers using this pattern, 4, fill in a multiplication chart using the skills and answers from this activity.
RESOURCES/MATERIALS:
Graph paper coloured pencils, enlarged chart or overhead projector.
PRESENTATION
ACTIVITIES AND PROCEDURES:
The teacher explains that in addition when the same number was in the problem it was called a double, but in multiplication when a number is times itself it has a different name. Can we find what the label might be and why it is suitable? Pass out large block student. The teacher works on an enlarged copy at the board or uses an overhead projector. Each student and the teacher also need a marker shaped like a carpenter’s square. Choose a number from one to ten. Place the marker at the very top. Left – hand corner of the graph. Move down exactly that many boxes then across the given number of boxes. The area that appears inside the marker is the answer for how much that number equals when it is multiplied times itself. Count to identify, with a coloured pencil, shade in this area choose another number on to ten and follow the same procedure until the pattern becomes apparent. A numerical answer may be recorded at the lower, left – hand side of each square. Write out a list of all the math facts 1 – 10 times itself and label the list multiplication squares.
TYING IT ALL TOGETHER:
The student should observe that each time a number one through ten is multiplied times itself, the answer is a square. They can then predict that a two or three digit number times itself will also make a square. Later they can find square roots. Can the chart and marker be used to find other products and will the other products also be squares? If 5´5 is 25, what will 6´5 be? After practicing and filling in the answers on the chart, the student will have a complete multiplication chart to be used meaningfully until the math facts are memorized.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. John Hayson and Clive Sutton, Activities for Students-teacher.
2. David J. Fuys and Rosamond Welchaman Tuschler, Teaching of Mathematics in the Elementary School.
3. Ibn-Saleem and Khalid Saleem, Teaching of Mathematics for B.Ed., and M.Ed.
4. Sheikh Moez-ud-Din, Teaching of Mathematics for B.Ed.
5. Qazi Zulfiwar Ahmad, Principles and Method of Teaching.
6. Khalid Mahmood, Additional Teaching Material of Teachers Training Project.
7. Ch. Munir Ahmad, Teaching Material for P.M.S.P.
8. Punjab Text Book Board, Teaching of Mathematics for B.Ed.
9. Allama iqbal Open University, Teaching of Mathematics for B.Ed.
10. Ahmad Farooq Malghani, Curriculum for Elementary School for B.Ed.
11. Muhammad Islam Siddiq and Anayat Ali Qureshi, Teaching of Social Studies for B.Ed.
12. Muhammad Akram Shah, Teaching of Science for Elementary Classes.
13. Prof. Dr. Muhammad Rashid, Teaching Techniques.
14. Marianne Pennekamp and Tom Allen, basic elements of Instructions and the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.
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