SHAHBAZ AHMAD RANA

Scheme of Study and Syllabi for B.Ed

2008-02-23T14:04:00.001-08:00

Teaching Profession

01.Teaching Profession: An Introduction
02.Characteristics of Teaching Profession
03.Teaching profession Responsibilities
04.Duties and Rights of Teachers
05.Characteristics of Good Teacher
06.Role of a Teacher
07.Professional Organizations
08.Professional Code of Ethics
09.Teacher education in National context
10.Teacher’s salary package and Problems
11. Teacher’s salary package and Problems
12. Teaching Strategies

Suggested Books.

Scheme of Study and Syllabi for M.A Education

2008-02-23T14:02:00.001-08:00

MOE 103: Instructional Technology

1. Nature of Instructional Technology
2. Role of Instructional technology in effective classroom communication
3. Projected and Non-Projected Teaching Aids in classroom learning
4. Role of Media in Teaching-Learning Process
5. Designing Instruction
6. Instructional technology and Learning Assessment

Scheme of Study and Syllabi for M.Ed

2008-02-23T14:00:00.002-08:00

M.Ed 508: Instructional Technology

Objectives
At the completion of the course the students will:
Understand Instructional Technology and categorize techniques to make teaching learning process more efficient.
Solve day to day teaching learning problems.
Apply appropriate teaching methods and techniques.
Differentiate different teaching learning projected and non-projected resources.
Present practical, efficient ways to integrate technology resources and technology based methods in to every day curriculum-specific practices.

Contents
1) Introduction
1.1 Definition, Meaning and scope of Instructional Technology
1.2 History of Instructional Technology
1.3 Types, Approaches of Instructional Technology
1.4 Theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management and evolution of subject matter, Learner’s characteristics and Learner’s Environment.
1.5 Technique of solving day to day teaching, Learning problems
1.6 Instructional Technology & Challenges of 21st Century.
2) Basic Aspects of Instructional Technology
2.1 Teaching, Instruction and Learning: Basic Difference
2.2 Education and Teaching: Basic Difference
2.3 Phases of Teaching, Instruction
2.4 Principles and maxims of Teaching
3) Instructional, Technology and Teacher, Instructor
3.1 A comprehensive Technology
3.2 Characteristics of Teacher/Instructor
4) Instructional Strategies
4.1 Meaning of Strategy, Method, technique and Tactics.
4.2 Types of teaching strategies (Autocratic/ Permissive)
4.3 Approaches (Pedagogical, Andragogical) Scaffolding
5) Instructional Technology Resources
5.1 Projected Aids:
Films, Film Strips, Opaque Projector, Overhead Projector, Slides, Multimedia
5.2 Graphic aids:
Cartoons, Charts, Comics, Diagrams, Flash Cards, Graphs, Maps, Globes,
Photographs, Pictures, posters
5.3 Display Boards:
Black Boards, Writing Boards, Bulletin, Flannel Boards, Magnetic Board,
Electronic Board, Peg Board.

5.4 3-Dimensional Aids:
Diagrams, models, Mockups, Real Objects, Puppets, Specimens.
5.5 Audio Visual Aids:
Radio, recording, Television
5.6 Activity Aids:
Demonstrations, Experimentation, Field Trips, Programmed Instruction
6) Integrating computer Technology in the Classroom Teaching and
Assessment
6.1 Communications, Networks, Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW).
6.2 Educational Software applications
6.3 Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)

Teaching Strategies
In general, collaborative, participative and interactive approaches. Discussions, assignments, projects using “Learner centered methods”
“Reflective Journals” on each on each session
Maintaining course portfolios

Suggested Books
1) Darbyshire P. (2005). Instructional Technologies Cognitive Aspects of Online Program. London; IREM Press
2) Henery Ellington, Fred Phil Race,(1993). Handbook of Educational technology. London; Kogan Paul
3) Rowntrec D.(1988). Educational Technology in Curriculum Development. London: Harper & Row

Instructional Technology M.Ed Chapter 01

2008-02-23T14:00:00.001-08:00

INTRODUCTION

What is Instruction?
An instruction is a form of communicated information that is both command and explanation for how an action, behavior, method, or task is to be begun, completed, conducted, or executed.
Instruction may also refer to:
1.Teaching – teachers are also called instructors.
2.Sebayt – a work of the ancient Egyptian didactic literature aiming to teach ethical behaviour.
3.Instruction (computer science) – a single operation of a processor within a computer
4.In the context of French law (or inquisitorial systems based on France's), the instruction is the pre-trial phase of a criminal investigation that is led by a judge. More generally, it refers to phases of judicial or administrative proceedings where a request is investigated, and information pertaining to it is collected, before a final decision is made.
Instruction was the name of a rock band from New York City

What is Technology?

Technology is a broad concept that deals with a species' usage and knowledge of tools and crafts, and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt to its environment. In human society, it is a consequence of science and engineering, although several technological advances predate the two concepts. Technology is a term with origins in the Greek "technologia", "τεχνολογία" — "techne", "τέχνη" ("craft") and "logia", "λογία" ("saying").[1] However, a strict definition is elusive; "technology" can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines, hardware or utensils, but can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and techniques. The term can either be applied generally or to specific areas: examples include "construction technology", "medical technology", or "state-of-the-art technology".
Communication
Communication is a process that allows organisms to exchange information by several methods. Exchange requires

feedback. The word communication is also used in the context where little or no feedback is expected such as broadcasting, or where the feedback may be delayed as the sender or receiver use different methods, technologies, timing and means for feedback.Communication is the articulation of sending a message, whether it be verbal or nonverbal, so long as a being transmits a thought provoking idea, gesture, action, etc. . .
Communication can be defined as the process of meaningful interaction among human beings. It is the act of passing information and the process by which meanings are exchanged so as to produce understanding.Communication is the process by which any message is given or received through talking, writing, or making gestures.There are auditory means, such as speaking, singing and sometimes tone of voice, and nonverbal, physical means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch, eye contact, or the use of writing. Communication happens at many levels (even for one single action), in many different ways, and for most beings, as well as certain machines. Several, if not all, fields of study dedicate a portion of attention to communication, so when speaking about communication it is very important to be sure about what aspects of communication one is speaking about. Definitions of communication range widely, some recognizing that animals can communicate with each other as well as human beings, and some are more narrow, only including human beings within the parameters of human symbolic interaction.Nonetheless, communication is usually described along a few major dimensions:
1.Content (what type of things are communicated)
2.Source/Emisor/Sender/Encoder (by whom)
3.Form (in which form)
4.Channel (through which medium)
5.Destination/Receiver/Target/Decoder (to whom)
6.Purpose/Pragmatic aspect

Communication as information transmission
Communication: transmitting a message with the expectation of some kind of response. This can be interpersonal or intrapersonal.Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
1.Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
2.pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
3.semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. (This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk). In a simple model, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally.A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. In the presence of "communication noise" on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect.
Dialogue is a form of communication in which both the parties are involved in sending and receiving information.
Theories of coregulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information.
Nonverbal communication is the act of imparting or interchanging thoughts, posture, opinions or information without the use of words, using gestures, sign language, facial expressions and body language instead.
Information exchange between living organisms
Communication in many of its facets is not limited to humans, or even to primates. Every information exchange between living organisms — i.e. transmission of signals involving a living sender and receiver — can be considered a form of communication. Thus, there is the broad field of animal communication, which encompasses most of the issues in ethology. On a more basic level, there is cell signaling, cellular communication, and chemical communication between primitive organisms like bacteria, and within the plant and fungal kingdoms. All of these communication processes are sign-mediated interactions with a great variety of distinct coordinations.

Animal communication
Animal communication is any behaviour on the part of one animal that has an effect on the current or future behavior of another animal. Of course, human communication can be subsumed as a highly developed form of animal communication. The study of animal communication, called zoosemiotics (distinguishable from anthroposemiotics, the study of human communication) has played an important part in the development of ethology, sociobiology, and the study of animal cognition. This is quite evident as humans are able to communicate with animals especially dolphins and other animals used in circuses however these animals have to learn a special means of communication.
Animal communication, and indeed the understanding of the animal world in general, is a rapidly growing field, and even in the 21st century so far, many prior understandings related to diverse fields such as personal symbolic name use, animal emotions, animal culture and learning, and even sexual conduct, long thought to be well understood, have been revolutionized.

Plant communication
Plant communication is observed (a) within the plant organism, i.e. within plant cells and between plant cells, (b) between plants of the same or related species and (c) between plants and non-plant organisms, especially in the rootzone. Plant roots communicate in parallel with rhizobia bacteria, with fungi and with insects in the soil. This parallel sign-mediated interactions which are governed by syntactic, pragmatic and semantic rules are possible because of the decentralized "nervous system" of plants. As recent research shows 99% of intraorganismic plant communication processes are neuronal-like. Plants also communicate via volatiles in the case of herbivory attack behavior to warn neighboring plants. In parallel they produce other volatiles which attract parasites which attack these herbivores. In stress situations plants can overwrite the genetic code they inherited from their parents and revert to that of their grand- or great-grandparents.

Bacteria communication
There are communication processes between different species of bacteria and between bacteria and non bacterial life such as eukaryotic hosts. Beneath the semiochemicals necessary for developmental processes of bacterial communities such as division, sporulation, and synthesis of secondary metabolites there are physical contact-mediated behavioral patterns being important in biofilm organisation. There are three classes of signalling molecules for different purposes, i.e. signalling within the organism to coordinate gene expressions to generate adequate response behavior, signalling between same or related and different species. The most popular communicative behavior is „quorum sensing“. Quorum sensing is the term for description of sign-mediated interactions in which chemical molecules are produced and secreted by bacteria. They are recognized of the bacterial community dependent on a critical concentration and in a special ratio to the population density. These molecules trigger the expression of a great variety of gene transcriptions. The semiochemicals used by bacteria are of great variety, especially because some signalling molecules are multiple re-usable components. Today three kinds of communicative goals are distinguished: (A) reciprocal communication, active sign-mediated interactions which is beneficial for both interacting parts; (B) messages which are produced as response on a triggering event which may be an indicator for a receiver which was not specially targeted by the producer. A coincidental event which is neutral – except of the energy costs of production – to the producer but beneficial for the receiver; (C) signalling to manipulate the receiver, i.e. to cause a response behavior which is onesided beneficial to the producer and harms the receivers often in that they behave against their normal goals. The three classes of bacteria communication enable bacteria to generate and coordinate different behavioral patterns: self and non-self identification, i.e. identification of other colonies and measurement of their size, pheromone based courtship for mating, alteration of colony structure in formatting of fruiting bodies, initiation of developmental and growth processes e.g. sporulation.

Fungal communication
Fungi communicate to coordinate and organize their own growth and development such as the formation of mycelia and fruiting bodies. Additionally fungi communicate with same and related species as well as with nonfungal organisms in a great variety of symbiotic interactions, especially with bacteria, unicellular eukaryotes, plants and insects. The used semiochemicals are of biotic origin and they trigger the fungal organism to react in a specific manner, in difference while to even the same chemical molecules are not being a part of biotic messages doesn’t trigger to react the fungal organism. It means, fungal organisms are competent to identify the difference of the same molecules being part of biotic messages or lack of these features. So far five different primary signalling molecules are known that serve to coordinate very different behavioral patterns such as filamentation, mating, growth, pathogenicity. Behavioral coordination and the production of such substances can only be achieved through interpretation processes: self or non-self, abiotic indicator, biotic message from similar, related, or non-related species, or even “noise”, i.e., similar molecules without biotic content.

Language
A language is a syntactically organized system of signals, such as voice sounds, intonations or pitch, gestures or written symbols which communicate thoughts or feelings. If a language is about communicating with signals, voice, sounds, gestures, or written symbols, can animal communications be considered as a language? Animals do not have a written form of a language, but use a language to communicate with each another. In that sense, an animal communication can be considered as a separated language.

Media
The beginning of human communication through artificial channels, i.e. not vocalization or gestures, goes back to ancient cave paintings, drawn maps, and writing.
Our indebtedness to the Ancient Romans in the field of communication does not end with the Latin root "communicare". They devised what might be described as the first real mail or postal system in order to centralize control of the empire from Rome. This allowed for personal letters and for Rome to gather knowledge about events in its many widespread provinces.
The adoption of a dominant communication medium is important enough that historians have folded civilization into "ages" according to the medium most widely used. A book titled "Five Epochs of Civilization" by William McGaughey (Thistlerose, 2000) divides history into the following stages: Ideographic writing produced the first civilization; alphabetic writing, the second; printing, the third; electronic recording and broadcasting, the fourth; and computer communication, the fifth. The media affects what people think about themselves and how they perceive people as well. What we think about self image and what others should look like comes from the media.While it could be argued that these "Epochs" are just a historian's construction, digital and computer communication shows concrete evidence of changing the way humans organize. The latest trend in communication, termed smartmobbing, involves ad-hoc organization through mobile devices, allowing for effective many-to-many communication and social networking.

Electronic media
In the last century, a revolution in telecommunications has greatly altered communication by providing new media for long distance communication. The first transatlantic two-way radio broadcast occurred in 1906 and led to common communication via analogue and digital media:
Analog telecommunications include traditional telephony, radio, and TV broadcasts.
Digital telecommunications allow for computer-mediated communication, telegraphy, and computer networks.
Communications media impact more than the reach of messages. They impact content and customs; for example, Thomas Edison had to discover that hello was the least ambiguous greeting by voice over a distance; previous greetings such as hail tended to be garbled in the transmission. Similarly, the terseness of e-mail and chat rooms produced the need for the emoticon.
Modern communication media now allow for intense long-distance exchanges between larger numbers of people (many-to-many communication via e-mail, Internet forums). On the other hand, many traditional broadcast media and mass media favor one-to-many communication (television, cinema, radio, newspaper, magazines).

Instructional technology is "the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning,"

History:

The first use of instructional technology cannot be attributed to a specific person or time. Many histories of instructional technology start in the early 1900s, while others go back to the 1600s. This depenocused on sensory devices are relatively more recent.The use of audio and visual instruction was boosted as a military response to the problems of a labor shortage during

WWII in the United States. There was a definitive need to fill the factories with skilled labor. Instructional technology provided a methodology for training in a systematic and efficient manner.With it came the use of highly structured manuals, instructional films, and standardized tests. Thomas Edison saw the value of instructional technology in films but did not formalize the science of instruction as the US military did so well.
World War II, or the Second World War, was a global military conflict, the joining of what had initially been two separate conflicts. The first began in Asia in 1937 as the Second Sino-Japanese War; the other began in Europe in 1939 with the German invasion of Poland. This global conflict split the majority of the world's nations into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis Powers. Spanning much of the globe, World War II resulted in the death of over 60 million people, making it the deadliest conflict in human history.[1]World War II involved the mobilization of over 100 million military personnel, making it the most widespread war in history. The war placed the participants in a state of "total war", erasing the distinction between civil and military resources. This resulted in the complete activation of a nation's economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities for the purposes of the war effort; nearly two-thirds of those killed in the war were civilians[citation needed]. From 9 to 11 million of these civilian casualties were victims of the Holocaust—which was conducted by Nazi Germany—largely in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.[2] The financial cost of the war is estimated at about a trillion 1944 U.S. dollars worldwide,[3][4] making it the most costly war in capital as well as lives.The Allies were victorious, and, as a result, the United States and Soviet Union emerged as the world's two leading superpowers. This set the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 45 years. The United Nations was formed in hopes of preventing another such conflict. The self determination spawned by the war gave rise to decolonization movements in Asia and Africa, while Europe itself began moving toward integration.
Current status: Instructional technology is a growing field of study which uses technology as a means to solve educational challenges, both in the classroom and in distance learning environments. While instructional technology promises solutions to many educational problems, resistance from faculty and administrators to the use of technology in the classroom is not unusual. This reaction can arise from the belief - or fear - that the ultimate aim of instructional technology is to reduce or even remove the human element of instruction. Most instructional technologists however, would counter with this claim that education will always require human intervention from instructors or facilitators. Many

graduate programs are producing instructional designers, who increasingly are being employed by industry and universities to create materials for distance education programs. These professionals often employ e-learning tools, which provide distance learners the opportunity to interact with instructors and experts in the field, even if they are not located physically close to each other. More recently a new form of Instructional technology known as Human Performance Technology has evolved. HPT focuses on performance problems and deals primarily with corporate entities.

Relation to learning theory:
The purpose of instructional technology, of course, is the promotion of learning. Learning theory (education) has influenced Instructional design and Instructional designers (the practitioners of Instructional Technology). Instructional Technologies promote communication and interactivity. These two come together under the general heading of Interaction.Moore (1989) argues that there are three types of learner interaction (learner-content, learner-instructor, and learner-learner interactions). In the years since Moore's article, several philosophical views have surfaced that relate Instructional technology to these types of interaction.Most traditional researchers (those subscribing to Cognitivism) argue that learner-content interaction is perhaps the most important endeavor of Instructional technology. Some researchers (those subscribing to constructivism) argue that Moore's social interactions, (learner-instructor and learner-learner interactions), are as useful as learner-content interaction.
Areas: Within the field of instructional technology, there are many specific areas of focus. While instructional technology can apply to the military and corporate settings,

educational technology is instructional technology applied to a learning and teaching environment. Razavi (2005) advocates that educational technology covers instructional technology. It includes instructional technology and the field study in human teaching and learning. So educational technology is broader than instructional technology. Instructional technology itself is consisted from two major parts. One is teaching technology and another is learning technology. In the education industry, the term "instructional technology" is frequently used interchangeably with "educational technology. "Human Performance Technology (HPT) has a focus on corporate environments. Learning sciences are a growing area of focus dealing instructional techniques and learning theories.

Instructional-Theory

Instructional theory is a discipline that focuses on how to structure material for promoting the education of humans, particularly youth. Originating in the United States in the late 1970s, instructional theory is typically divided into two categories: the cognitive and behaviorist schools of thought. Instructional theory was spawned off the 1956 work of Benjamin Bloom, a University of Chicago professor, and the results of his Taxonomy of Education Objectives — one of the first modern codifications of the learning process. One of the first instructional theorists was Robert M. Gagne, who in 1965 published Conditions of Learning for the Florida State University's Department of Educational Research.Renowned psychologist B. F. Skinner's theories of behavior were highly influential on instructional theorists because their hypotheses can be tested fairly easily with the scientific process. It is more difficult to demonstrate cognitive learning results. Paulo Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed, first published in English in 1968 — had a broad influence over a generation of American educators with his critique of various "banking" models of education and analysis of the teacher-student relationship.In the context of e-learning, a major discussion in instructional theory is the potential of learning objects to structure and deliver content. A stand-alone educational animation is an example of a learning object that can be re-used as the basis for different learning experiences. There are currently many groups trying to set standards for the development and implementation of learning objects. At the forefront of the standards groups is the Department of Defense's Advanced Distributed Learning initiative with its SCORM standards. SCORM stands for Shareable Content Object Reference Model.Educational-Technology Educational technology is an area of study and practice within the fields of education and/or psychology. The term educational technology is often associated with, and encompasses, instructional theory and learning theory. While instructional technology covers the processes and systems of learning and instruction, educational technology includes other systems used in the process of developing human capability.It is important to consider the meaning of technology to understand the meaning of the word in an educational context. The popular definition of technology refers to machine or electronic systems. Under this definition, for example, a DVD player or an Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) system constitute technology. However, fields such as Educational Technology rely on a more fulsome definition of the word. "Technology" can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines, hardware or utensils, but can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and techniques. One who practices educational technology is called an educational technologist.Consider the publication "Handbook of Human Performance Technology" (Eds. Harold Stolovich, Erica Keeps, James Pershing)(3rd ed, 2006). The word technology for the sister fields of Educational and Human Performance Technology means "applied science". In other words, any valid and reliable process or procedure that is derived from basic research using the "scientific method" is considered a "technology". Educational or Human Performance Technology may be based purely on algorithmic or heuristic processes but neither necessarily implies physical technology.An Educational Technologist is a person who transforms basic educational / psychological, or other allied sciences, research into an evidence-based applied science (or a technology) of learning or instruction. A classic example of an Educational Technology is "Bloom B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co Inc." Educational Technologists typically have a graduate degree (Master's, Doctorate, Ph.D., or D.Phil.) in a field related to educational psychology, educational media, experimental psychology, cognitive psychology or, more purely, in the fields of Educational, Instructional or Human Performance Technology or Instructional (Systems),Design.

Types of Instructional Technology
· The evolution of technology in education
· The technology of teaching
· Instructional technology
· Assistive technology
· Medical technology
· Technology productivity tools
· Information technology
· A complex example

THE EVOLUTION OF TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION
To many of us, the term technology conjures up visions of things such as computers, cell phones, spaceships, digital video players, computer games, advanced military equipment, and other highly sophisticated machines. Such perceptions have been acquired and reinforced through exposure to televised reports of fascinating devices and news articles about them, science fiction books and movies, and our use of equipment such as automobiles, telephones, computers, and automatic teller machines. While this focus on devices and machines seems to be very prevalent among the general population, many educators also hold a similar perspective. Since Pressey developed the first teaching machine in 1926 (Nazzaro, 1977), technology applications in public schools and post-secondary education institutions have tended to focus on the acquisition and use of equipment such as film projectors, audio and video tape recorders, overhead projectors, and computers.
Since the early 1960s, however, a trend has emerged that is changing the way we perceive technology in education. At that time, educators began considering the concept of instructional technology. Subsequently, after considerable deliberation, a Congressional Commission on Instructional Technology (1970) concluded that technology involved more than just hardware. The Commission concluded that, in addition to the use of devices and equipment, instructional technology also involves a systematic way of designing and delivering instruction.
With the rapid development of microcomputer technology, increased research on instructional procedures, and the invention of new devices and equipment to aid those with health problems, physical disabilities, and sensory impairments, the latter third of the 20th century has borne witness to a very dramatic evolution. The current perspective is a broad one in which six types of technology are recognized: the technology of teaching, instructional technology, assistive technology, medical technology, technology productivity tools, and information technology (Blackhurst & Edyburn, 2000)

TECHNOLOGY OF TEACHING
The technology of teaching refers to instructional approaches that are very systematically designed and applied in very precise ways. Such approaches typically include the use of well-defined objectives, precise instructional procedures based upon the tasks that students are required to learn, small units of instruction that are carefully sequenced, a high degree of teacher activity, high levels of student involvement, liberal use of reinforcement, and careful monitoring of student performance.
Instructional procedures that embody many of these principles include approaches such as direct instruction and applied behavior analysis

INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Although there are differing opinions about the nature of instructional technology, the Commission on Instructional Technology (1970) provided the following definition:
Instructional technology is a systematic way of designing, carrying out, and evaluating the total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific objectives, based on research in human learning and communication, and employing a combination of human and nonhuman resources to bring about more effective instruction. (p. 199)
Typical applications of instructional technology may use conventional media such as videotapes, computer assisted instruction, or more complex systems, such as hypermedia programs in which computers are used to control the display of audio and visual images stored on videodisc (Blackhurst & Morse, 1996), CD-ROM and digital video discs. The use of telecommunication systems, particularly the Internet (Williams, 1995) and its World Wide Web component (Williams, 1996), have great promise for use in classrooms and for distance education. Computer software systems are now available that can be used to manage the delivery of instruction via the Web. Such systems have been used successfully to deliver instruction to undergraduate and graduate students on topics related to special education (Blackhurst, Hales, & Lahm, 1997). It is important to note the various components of the above definition and to realize that technology is actually a tool for the delivery of instruction. In this conceptualization, technological devices are considered as means to an end and not an end in and of themselves. Use of technology cannot compensate for instruction that is poorly designed or implemented.

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY
Assistive technology employs the use of various types of services and devices designed to help people with disabilities function within the environment. Assistive technologies include mechanical, electronic, and microprocessor-based equipment, non-mechanical and non-electronic aids, specialized instructional materials, services, and strategies that people with disabilities can use either to (a) assist them in learning,

(b) make the environment more accessible,

(d) enhance their independence, or

(e) otherwise improve their quality of life.
Assistive technologies may include commercially available or "home made" devices that are specially designed to meet the idiosyncratic needs of a particular individual (Blackhurst & Lahm, 2000). Examples include eyeglasses, communication aids, alternative computer keyboards, adaptive switches, and services such as those that might be provided by speech/language pathologists.

MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
The field of medicine continues to amaze us with the advances constantly being made in medical technology. In addition to seemingly miraculous surgical procedures that are technology-based, many individuals are dependent upon medical technology to stay alive or otherwise enable people to function outside of hospitals and other medical settings. It is not uncommon to see people in their home and community settings who use medical technology.
For example, artifical limbs and hip and knee implants can help people function in the environment. Cochlear implants can often improve the hearing of people with auditory nerve damage. Some devices provide respiratory assistance through oxygen supplementation and mechanical ventilation. Others, such as cardiorespiratory monitors and pulse oximeters are used as surveillance devices that alert an attendant to a potential vitality problem. Nutritive assistive devices can assist in tube feeding or elimination through ostomies. Intravenous therapy can be provided through medication infusion and kidney function can be assumed by kidney dialysis machines (Batshaw & Perret, 1992). In addition to keeping people alive, technologies such as these can enable people to fully participate in school, community, and work activities.

TECHNOLOGY PRODUCTIVITY TOOLS
As the name implies, technology productivity tools are computer software, hardware, and related systems that enable us to work more effectively and efficiently. For example, computer software such as database programs can be used to store and rapidly retrieve information; word processing programs can be used to easily edit text material; FAX machines can facilitate the transmission of written documents over long distances; expert system computer programs can aid in decision making, such as weather forecasting; and video conferencing facilities can reduce the need for travel.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Information technologies provide access to knowledge and resources on a wide range of topics. The Internet, and its World Wide Web component, is the most prominent example of information technology. The Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) is another example. The ERIC system enables people to search and locate much of the world's educational literature on a given topic. More information about the ERIC System is available elsewhere on this Web site.

A COMPLEX EXAMPLE
Each of the above types of technology has significant implications for the education of students with disabilities, in and of itself. It is important to remember, however, that these also may be used in combination.
For example, a high school student who is paralyzed may require a respirator to assist in breathing (medical technology). In a course designed to teach about telecommunications, that individual may use a voice-operated computer (assistive technology) to pursue a tutorial about how to design databases from a software program (instructional technology) that was designed according to principles of near-errorless learning (technology of teaching). As a result of the tutorial, the student will be able to set up a database, enter and retrieve information necessary to function effectively in class (technology productivity tool) and use the Internet (information technology) to locate information that could be stored in the database. While the above example may be somewhat extreme, it serves to place the various types of technology into perspective. In reality, it is more likely that only one or two types of technology would be used at a time. It is important to keep the different types of technology in mind when considering technology solutions for people with disabilities.

Developing Instruction or Instructional Design Theory

1 - Robert Gagné's (1970) Nine Steps of InstructionTheory

2 - John Keller’s ARCS modelTheory

3 - Merrill's Component Display TheoryTheory

4 - Reigeluth’s Elaboration TheoryTheory

5 - Constructivism

This page presents five theories for developing instruction. The five models should be read first as they provide a framework to build upon and are fairly consistent in their approach. The two main differences are the level of detail that they go into and their semantics.The sixth section brings the theories together in an easy to follow model for ID design. This is followed by a section of resource of templates.There are three types of strategies within Instruction Design theories:Organizational strategies are broken down on the micro or macro level and deals with the way in which a lesson is arranged and sequenced,Delivery strategies are concerned with the decisions that affect the way in which information is carried to the student, particularly, the selection of instructional media.Management strategies involve the decisions that help the learner interact with the activities designed for learning.Robert Gagné's Nine Steps of InstructionThere are three principal means of acquiring knowledge available to us: observation of nature, reflection, and experimentation. Observation collects facts; reflection combines them; experimentation verifies the result of that combination. Our observation of nature must be diligent, our reflection profound, and our experiments exact. We rarely see these three means combined; and for this reason, creative geniuses are not common.Denis Diderot (1713–84), French philosopher. On the Interpretation of Nature, no. 15 (1753; repr. in Selected Writings, ed. by Lester G. Crocker, 1966).Gain attention. Present a problem or a new situation. Use an "interest device" that grabs the learner's attention. This can be thought of as a "teaser" (the short segment shown in a TV show right before the opening credits that is designed to keep you watching and listening). The ideal is to grab the learners' attention so that they will watch and listen, while you present the learning point. You can use such devices as:-Storytelling-Demonstrations-Presenting a problem to be solved-Doing something the wrong way (the instruction would then show how to do it the right way)-Why it is important-Inform learner of Objective.
This allows the learner's to organize their thoughts and around what they are about to see, hear, and/or do. There is a saying in the training filed to 1) tell them what you're going to tell them, 2) tell them, and 3) tell them what you told them. This cues them and then provides a review which has proven to be effective. e.g. describe the goal of a lesson, state what the learners will be able to accomplish and how they will be able to use the knowledge.Stimulate recall of prior knowledge. This allows the learners to build on their previous knowledge or skills. Although we are capable of having our "creative" minutes, it is much easier to build on what we already know. e.g. remind the learners of prior knowledge relevant to the current lesson, provide the learners with a framework that helps learning and remembering.Present the material. Chunk the information to avoid memory overload. Blend the information to aid in information recall. This is directly related to Skinner's "sequenced learning events." This allows learners to receive feedback on individualized tasks, thereby correcting isolated problems rather than having little idea of where the root of the learning challenge lies. Bloom's Taxonomy and Learning Strategies can be used to help sequence the lesson by helping you chunk them into levels of difficulty.Provide guidance for learning. This is not the presentation of content, but are instructions on how to learn. This is normally simpler and easier than the subject matter or content. It uses a different channel or media to avoid mixing it with the subject matter. The rate of learning increases because learners are less likely to lose time or become frustrated by basing performance on incorrect facts or poorly understood concepts.Elicit performance. Practice by letting the learner do something with the newly acquired behavior, skills, or knowledgeProvide feedback. Show correctness of the learner's response, analyze learner's behavior. This can be a test, quiz, or verbal comments. The feedback needs to be specific, not, "you are doing a good job" Tell them "why" they are doing a good job or provide specific guidance.Assess performance. Test to determine if the lesson has been learned. Can also give general progress informationEnhance retention and transfer. Inform the learner about similar problem situations, provide additional practice, put the learner in a transfer situation, review the lesson.Army Research Institute on Behavioral & Social Sciences completed a meta-analysis of the effects of overlearning. Overlearning is additional training for the learner that occurs after the learner has reached proficiency on the task.The results of the meta-analysis indicate that overlearning produces reliably better retention of the skill than just training to proficiency. Even after thousands of practice trials, performance continues to improve. Apparently, when considering the amount of practice - no amount is ever too much, especially for fundamental skills.http://www-ari.army.mil/foun.htm
John Keller’s ARCS Model of Motivational DesignAccording to John Keller, there are four steps in the instructional design process - Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction (ARCS).AttentionAccording to Keller attention can be gained in two ways:Perceptual arousal - uses surprise or uncertainly to gain interest. Uses novel, surprising, incongruous, and uncertain events.Inquiry arousal - stimulates curiosity by posing challenging questions or problems to be solved. Stimulates information seeking behavior by posing or having the learner generate questions or a problem to solve. Maintain interest by varying the elements of instruction.Methods for grabbing the learners' attention include:Specific examples - Use a visual stimuli, story, or biography.Active Participation or Hands-on - Involve the learners with role playing, games, lab work, or other simulations that allows them to get them involved with the material or subject matter. Note that active participation should almost always be included!Incongruity and Conflict - Pose facts or statements that run contrary to the learner's previous experiences. Play devils advocate while discussing the subject to be covered.Inquiry - Stimulate curiosity by posing questions or problems for the learners to solve. It may include such activities as brainstorming or performing team research.Humor - Break up monotony and maintain interest by lightening the subject. However, too much humor distracts from your main topic. The goal is to hold your learner's attention, not to become a stand up comedian.Variability - Combine a variety of methods in presenting material. Foe example, a 15 lecture, watch a video, then divide the classroom into groups to review the material and to answer questions posed by it. Using a variety of methods reinforces the material and helps to incorporate a variety of learning styles. Also see Media. The first step, "gaining the learner's attention" is normally relatively easy; the key is to then maintain their attention at an optimal level after grabbing them. You have to keep them from becoming bored nor over stimulate them (see Arousal).RelevanceEmphasize relevance within the instruction to increase motivation by using concrete language and examples with which the learners are familiar. They are six major strategies foe accomplishing this:Experience - Tell the learners how the new learning will use their existing skills. We best learn by building upon our preset knowledge or skills.Present Worth - What will the subject matter do for me today?Future Usefulness - What will the subject matter do for me tomorrow?Needs Matching - Take advantage of the dynamics of achievement, risk taking, power, and affiliation (see Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs).Modeling - First of all, "be what you want them to do!" Other strategies include guest speakers, videos, and having the learners who finish their work first to serve as tutors.Choice - Allow the learners to use different methods to pursue their work or allowing s choice in how they organize it.ConfidenceAllow the learners to succeed! However, present a degree of challenge that provides meaningful success. Provide Objectives and Prerequisites - Help students estimate the probability of success by presenting performance requirements and evaluation criteria. Ensure the learners are aware of performance requirements and evaluative criteria.Grow the Learners - Every learning journey begins with a single step that builds upon itself. This allows a number of small success that gets more challenging with every step. Learners should understand that there is a correlation between the amount of energy they put into a learning experience and the amount of skill and knowledge they will gain from that experience.Feedback - Provide feedback and support internal attributions for success.Learner Control - Learners should feel some degree of control over their learning and assessment (see Constructivism). They should believe that their success is a direct result of the amount of effort they have put forth.SatisfactionProvide opportunities to use newly acquired knowledge or skill in a real or simulated setting. Provide feedback and reinforcements that will sustain the desired behavior. If learners feel good about learning results, they will be motivated to learn. Satisfaction is based upon motivation, which can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Some basic rules are:Do not annoy the learner by over-rewarding simple behavior.If negative consequences are too entertaining the learners may deliberately choose the wrong answer.Using too many extrinsic rewards may eclipse the instruction.Notice that satisfaction is closely related to confidence. If you allow the learners to build confidence, satisfaction will follow if the task remains challenging.B.F. Skinner had a major influence on ID through behaviorism and programmed instruction. He believed the best way for creating a good learning environment was to identify the desired behavior, then create situations in which successive approximations of the behavior would occur and be reinforced.Merrill's Component Display TheoryMerrill's Component Display Theory (DDT) describes the micro elements of instruction (single ideas and methods for teaching them). It is designed to work in conjunction with Riegeluth's theory.CDT is comprised of three parts:A performance/content dimension comprised of the desired level of student performance and type of content.Four primary presentation formsA set of prescriptions relating the level of performance and type of content to the presentation forms.The theory classifies learning into two dimensions:Content, which consists of facts, concepts, procedures, and principles. Content ranges from facts, which are the most basic forms of content, to principles. It is the actual information to be learned. The four types of content in component display theory areFacts - logically associated pieces of information. Some examples are names, dates, and events.Concepts - symbols, events, and objects that share characteristics and are identified by the same name. Concepts make up a large portion of language and understanding them is integral to communication.Procedures - a set of ordered steps, sequenced to solve a problem or accomplish a goal.Principles - work through either cause-and-effect or relationships. They explain or predict why something happens in a particular way.Performance, made up of remembering, using, and generalities. Performance is classified with remembering as being the simplest form of performance, to finding (generalities) the most advanced. Performance is the manner in which the learner applies the content. The three types of performance are:Remembering - the learner is required to search and recall from memory a particular item of information,Using - the learner directly apply the information to a specific case andFinding - the learner uses the information to derive a new abstraction (concepts, principles, etc.).By forming a matrix using content and performance, the instructor determines which elements on the matrix are the goals for the learner.Simplified MatrixFacts, Concepts, Procedure, Principles, Remembering, using, FindingThe theory also identifies four primary presentation forms:-Rules-Examples-Recall-PracticeAnd some secondary presentation forms:-Prerequisites-Objectives-Helps-Mnemonics-Feedback.The matrix is set up to determine the level of performance needed for an area of content. For each of the categories in the matrix, it can be assumed in CRT that there is a combination of primary and secondary presentation forms that will provide the most effective and efficient acquisition of skills and knowledge available. CRT specifies that instruction is more effective when it contains all the necessary primary and secondary forms. Thus, a complete lesson would consist of an objective, followed by some combination of rules, examples, recall, practice, feedback, helps, and mnemonics appropriate to the subject matter and learning task.The theory is primarily designed for use by groups of learners. Several components are provided so that a wide variety of learners may participate, however each learner only needs the components which specifically work for her to achieve the goals of instruction. What is known as "sequencing and organizing epitomes" in Reigeluth's Elaboration theory, is commonly referred to as "chunking." For example, "Instructional Design" is chunked or epitomized into:1.Analysis2.Design3.Develop4.Implement5.EvaluateEach of the above epitomes or chunks are further divided. For example, Development is divided as:-List Learner Activity-Choose Delivery System-Review Existing Material-Develop Instruction (this page)-Synthesize-ValidateDeveloping Instruction (Instructional Design) is divided into several theories and a model (at least on this site). Notice how we took a complex subject and chunked it into small, bite size pieces.

Reigeluth’s Elaboration TheoryCharles Reigeluth was a doctorate student of Merrill. He used a sequencing approach that is consistent with Merrill's Component Display Theory (that is, each theory enhances the other). Reigeluth believes that instruction is made out of layers and that each layer of instruction elaborates on the previously presented ideas. By elaborating on the previous ideal, it reiterates, thereby improving retention. This layering has a zoom lens sequencing approach that runs from simple to complex and repeated general-to-specific:Present overview of simplest and most fundamental ideasAdd complexity to one aspectReview the overview and show relationships to the detailsProvide additional elaboration of detailsProvide additional summary and synthesis.This zoom lens approach first looks at the subject through a wide-angle lens. That is, the subject matter is general and fundamental. This allows us to deal with the core aspects of the subject. Elaboration begins with an overview of the simplest and most fundamental ideas of the subject.Then we start to zoom in with the lens so that we pick up some details and specifics about the subject matter. We can also observe the relationships between the wide-angle subject shot and the zoom details. This principle as applied to elaboration theory is called a cognitive zoom.As we continue to zoom, we go into great detail with each iteration or layering. Note that we are primarily concerned with the sequencing of ideas as opposed to the individual ideas themselves. Each zoom that we make is called a sequence. Sequencing in this case relates to fundamental ideas or core principles. The basic ones are presented first, this in turn, leads to a great layer of specifics. Each sequence of ideas or principles are called epitomes in elaboration theory. The epitome serves as a foundation from which more specific information may be developed. The Seven Steps in Elaboration1. SequenceThis simple to complex procedure can take many forms such as an overview, advance organizer, or spiral curriculum. This sequence is one in which the general ideas epitomize rather than summarize, and the epitomizing is organized on the basis of a single type of content:Conceptual - Concepts are certain sets of objects, events, or symbols that have certain common characteristics.Procedural - Procedures are sets of actions intended to achieve an end.Theoretical - Principles are changes in something else, generally denoting cause and effect. One of these three contents is chosen to achieve the goals of a lesson or course. Epitomizing is structured as follows:One type of content is chosen (conceptual, procedural, or theoretical).All the organizing content in the course is then listed. The most basic and fundamental ideas are selected and presented at the application level. This is the subject matter before the first level of elaboration:PrechunksBefore we epitomize (chunk) the subject matter it is in a state of disarrayThis is after elaboration:PostchunksWe put chaos into order when we chunk (epitomize) the subject matterFrom this first layer or epitome, we can then elaborate by organizing (the second step) the content.2. OrganizeThe second step elaborates upon organizing the content in the first level. This process continues in the same way as the first step of Sequence. The relationships that result between the levels are organized according to content. At each level the expanded epitome is used to create a means to elaborate upon the next level.Epitomes can be sequenced according to the order of steps:Forward Chaining is presenting them in the order in which they are performed.Backward Chaining is presenting them in the reverse order (backwards).Hierarchical Sequencing is presenting all the major sub steps separately before integrating them into a step in the sequence.General to Detailed Sequencing is presented by summarizing.Simple to Complex Sequencing is presenting them by their shortest paths (procedures) with each successive path becoming more complex.Each epitome should be examined closely to determine if the learners have the essential knowledge that will allow them to learn the subject matter. If the necessary knowledge is not present, it must be provided.3. SummarizationIn order to systematically review what has already been learned, a summarizer is created. A summarizer provides a concise statement of each idea, an example. Two types of summarizers are used:Internal - The summary comes at the end of the lesson and deals specifically with the content of that lesson.Within-set - This deals with all that has been learned so far in a particular set of lessons. This can include other lessons that coordinate with that lesson.4. SynthesizeThis step integrates and interrelates the ideas taught thus far. The goal is to facilitate deeper understanding, meaningfulness, and retention in regards to the content area.5. AnalogyAnalogy is the use of a familiar idea or concept to introduce or define a new idea or concept. Analogies aid the trainer in reaching the learner's field of experience. Presenting analogies throughout the instruction helps the learners to build on their present knowledge or skills.6. Cognitive-Strategy ActivatorThere are two categories of cognitive-strategy activators:Imbedded - Uses pictures, diagrams, analogies, and other elements that force the learner to interact with the sequence and content.Detached - Causes the learner to employ a previously acquired cognitive skill.7. Learner ControlLearner Control deals with the freedom of the learner to control the selection and sequencing of such instructional elements as content, rate, components (instructional-strategy), and cognitive strategies.
NotesNote that this is a macro strategy of instructional design that focus on the organization and sequencing of subject matter content by addressing the four design problem areas: selection, sequencing, synthesizing, and summarizing. Elaboration theory is best suited for teaching causal relationships and sequences rather than problem solving or facts. It works in conjunction with component-display theory, which deals with the micro aspects of instruction and works out the details of elaboration.
Constructivist TheoryConstructivism is a learning theory, not an instructional approach, hence it can best be thought of as a way of "growing" or improving instruction. It is greatly influenced by Piagetian epistemology and Lev Vygotsky.Constructivists place the learner at the center of the equation; the idea is that the learner constructs knowledge rather than passively absorbs it. Meaning is constructed by the learner, each in her own way. It is based on according to how the learner's understanding is currently organized. An individual's knowledge is a function of one's prior experiences, mental structures, and beliefs that are used to interpret objects and events. In many classrooms, the predominant training model is direct instruction, which called instructivism or objectivism (based on information processing theory). The trainer's central role is to transmit knowledge to learners and learner's role is to absorb information (reception and compliance). In this model the trainer's performance is critical. Also, there is a over-reliance on rote memorization, which does not give the learners the skills in how to think and solve problems. However, in today's real-world context, the work environment is becoming a learning environment (learning organization). Learners will not make use of concepts and ideas unless they use them through some type of process, that is, learners master only those activities they actually practice. Note that this is an assumption in both constructivism and rote learning environments. Both constructivism and instructivism are required as learners need to be able to solve complex problems and be able to understand the reasons or methods they use to reach their conclusions. Note that this follows Bloom's Taxonomy in that it goes from simple leaning to the higher levels of critical thinking.Strategies for Using Constructivism in TrainingGood interactive strategies enhance the cognitive, social, and emotional climate. Small Group ActivitiesIn traditional classroom training, small group exercises involves the more conventional notion of cooperation, in that learners work in small groups on an assigned project or problem under the guidance of the trainer who monitors the groups, making sure the learners are staying on task and are coming up with the correct answers (if there is a right or a best answer). This is known as cooperative learning.Collaborative learning is a more radical departure. It involves learners working together in small groups to develop their own answer through interaction and reaching consensus, not necessarily a known answer. Monitoring the groups or correcting "wrong" impressions is not the role of the trainer since there is no authority on what the answer should be. One small group method is "Numbered Heads Together" developed by Spencer Kagan. This method divides the learners in groups of three to six. Each group is assigned a team number and each group member is assigned a number. When the trainer poses a question, group members get together, examine the possibilities, and construct an answer. The trainer then picks a number by drawing a card or rolling a die. The number selected designates the spokesperson for each table group. A second number designates the table group that will respond first. Learner Developed InstructionConstructivist learning theory also places importance on the learner's point of view. Make a point of including participant requests in the design process. Although it requires extra work, the payback in engagement and learning is well worth the effort. This is because the learners bring some form of prior knowledge to presentations. These conceptions (and misconceptions) should become part of the design process for the experience you are trying to create. A mind map is a good method for helping a learner to present her current theories. Metacognition and ReflectionMetacognition allows the learner to plan, set time lines, allocate resources. Also, metacognition also refers to the ability to reflect on one's own performance. Reflection allows the learners the opportunity to develop, assess, and organize their thoughts.Other Activities-Ask questions-Identify situations where the learners' perceptions vary-Brainstorm possible alternatives-Have the learners:-Look for information-Experiment with materials-Observe phenomena-Conduct an experiment-Design a model-Collect and organize data-Employ problem-solving strategies-Select appropriate resources-Review and critique solutions

An Instruction Design Model1. Chunk the material (epitomize)2. Sequence it into a logical structure3. Build an Interest Device (Get their Attention)If you are building this to pass on to another instructor, then they might want to use their own interest device. However, you should always build one for back up purposes.4. Organize the ObjectivesThis is the Task, Condition, and Standard built in the design phase. Normally, the objectives built are too stiff or formal for informing the learners. Reword them.If at all possible, get the learners' input for the objectives - what do they need to learn that will make their job more effective or efficient. Let them play a part in constructing their learning.5. Stimulate Recall of Prior Knowledge Build on what the learners know.How does this instruction relate to what they already know?6. Create Strategies to Foster Critical Thinking and Deeper UnderstandingBuild activities. Consider needs first; technologies last (see sidebar in media). Your task is to solve real world problems and not to advocate computers or other technologies just for the sake of technology. Technologies can enhance training; they do solve training problems.We learn what we do.Relate the information to the learner's interests.Short lectures are OK, but break them up with active participation.Point out content relationships.Ask rhetorical questions.Ask the learners for examples (this allows them to build upon their experiences).7. Build Summaries and Relate it to the Next Period of InstructionProvide regular summaries. Give them time to gather their thoughts.Build in Reflection periods for deeper understanding8. Test the learners.What we get tested on is what we remember the most and the longest.This should have been built in the Design Phase.9. Help with the Transfer of Learning

Instructional Technology and Challenges of 21st Century
Many exciting applications of information technology in schools validate that new technology-based models of teaching and learning have the power to dramatically improve educational outcomes. As a result, many people are asking how to scale-up the scattered, successful “islands of innovation” instructional technology has empowered into universal improvements in schooling enabled by major shifts in standard educational practices. Undertaking “systemic reform” (sustained, large-scale, simultaneous innovation in curriculum; pedagogy; assessment; professional development; administration; incentives; and partnerships for learning among schools, businesses, homes, and community settings) requires policies and practices different than fostering pilot projects for small-scale educational improvement. Systemic reform involves moving from utilizing special, external resources to reconfiguring existing budgets in order to free up money for innovation. Without undercutting their power, change strategies effective when pioneered by leaders in educational innovation must be modified to be implemented by typical educators. Technology-based innovations offer special challenges and opportunities in this scaling up process. I believe that systemic reform is not possible without utilizing the full power of high performance computing and communications to enhance the reshaping of schools. Yet the cost of technology, its rapid evolution, and the special knowledge and skills required of its users pose substantial barriers to effective utilization. One way to frame these issues is to pose six questions that school boards, taxpayers, educators, business groups, politicians, and parents are asking about implementing large-scale, technology-based educational innovations. After each question, I’ll respond to the issues it raises. Collectively, these answers outline a strategy for scaling-up, leveraging the power of technology while minimizing its intrinsic challenges.

Question One: How can schools afford to purchase enough multimedia-capable, Internet connected computers so that a classroom machine is always available for every two to three students?
Giving all students continuous access to multimedia-capable, Internet-connected
computers is currently quite fashionable. For politicians, the Internet in every classroom has become the modern equivalent of the promised “chicken in every pot.” Communities urge everyone to provide volunteer support for Net Days that wire the schools. Information technology vendors are offering special programs to encourage massive educational purchases. States are setting aside substantial amounts of money for building information infrastructures dedicated to instructional usage. Yet, as an educational technologist, I am more dismayed than delighted. Some of my nervousness about this initiative comes from the “First Generation” thinking about information technology that underlies these visions. Multimedia-capable, Internet-connected computers are seen by many as magical devices, “silver bullets” to solve the problems of schools. Teachers and
administrators who use new media are assumed to be automatically more effective than those who do not. Classroom computers are envisioned as a technology comparable to fire: just by sitting near these devices, students get a benefit from them, as knowledge and skills radiate from the monitors into their minds. Yet decades of experience with technological innovations based on First Generation thinking have demonstrated that this viewpoint is misguided. Classroom computers that are acquired as panaceas end up as doorstops. As discussed later, information technology is a cost effective investment only in the context of systemic reform. Unless other simultaneous innovations in pedagogy, curriculum, assessment, and school organization are coupled to the usage of instructional technology, the time and effort expended on implementing these devices produces few improvements in educational outcomes—and reinforces many educators’ cynicism about fads based on magical machines.
I feel additional concern about attempts to supply every student with continuous access to high performance computing and communications because of the likely cost of this massive investment. Depending on the assumptions made about the technological capabilities involved, estimates of the financial resources needed for such an information infrastructure vary. Extrapolating the most detailed cost model (McKinsey & Company,1995) to one multimedia-capable, Internet-connected computer for every two to three students yields a price tag of about ninety-four billion dollars of initial investment and twenty-eight billion dollars per year in ongoing costs, a financial commitment that would drain schools of all discretionary funding for at least a decade. For several reasons, this is an impractical approach for improving education.
First, putting this money into computers-and-cables is too large an investment in just one part of the infrastructure improvements that many schools desperately need. Buildings are falling apart, furnishings are dilapidated, playgrounds need repair, asbestos must be removed...otherwise, the machines themselves will cease to function as their context deteriorates. Also, substantial funding is needed for other types of innovations required to make instructional hardware effective, such as standards-based curricular materials for the World Wide Web and alternative kinds of pedagogy based on partnerships between teachers and tools. (The McKinsey cost estimates do include some funding for content development and staff training, but in my judgment too little to enable effective technology integration and systemic reform). If most of the money goes into new media, little funding is available for the new messages and meanings that those devices could empower.
Second, without substantial and extended professional development in the innovative models of teaching and learning that instructional technology makes affordable and sustainable, many educators will not use these devices to their full potential. “Second Generation” thinking in educational technology does not see computers as magic, but does make the mistake of focusing on automation as their fundamental purpose. Computers are envisioned as ways to empower “teaching by telling” and “learning by listening,” serving as a fire hose to spray information from the Internet into learners’ minds. However, even without educational technology, classrooms are already drowning in data, and an overcrowded curriculum puts students and teachers on the brink of intellectual indigestion. Adding additional information, even when coated with multimedia bells-and-whistles, is likely to worsen rather than improve educational settings. Professional development needs are more complex than increasing educators’ technical literacy (e.g., training in how to use web browsers). The issue is building teachers’ knowledge and skills in alternative types of pedagogy and content, and such an increase in human capabilities requires substantial funding that will be unavailable if almost all resources are put into hardware.
Third, the continuing costs of maintaining and upgrading a massive infusion of school based technology would be prohibitive. High performance computing and communications requires high tech skills to keep operational and will become obsolete in five to seven years as information technology continues its rapid advance. Yet taxpayers now see computers as similar to blackboards: buy them once, and they are inexpensively in place for the lifetime of the school. School boards rapidly become restive at sizable yearly expenditures for technology maintenance and telecommunications usage—especially if, several months after installation, standardized test scores have not yet dramatically risen—and will become apoplectic if another $50B to replace obsolete equipment is required only a few years after an initial huge expenditure. For all these reasons, investing a huge sum in information infrastructures for schools is impractical and invites a later backlash against educational technology as yet another failed fad. I would go farther, however, and argue that we should not make such an investment even if the “technology fairy” were to leave $100B under our virtual pillows, no strings attached. Kids continuously working on machines with teachers wandering around coaching the confused is the wrong model for the classroom of the future; I wince when I see those types of vendor commercials. In that situation—just as in classrooms with no technology—too much instructional activity tends to center on presentation and motivation, building a foundation of ideas and skills as well as some context for why students should care. Yet this temporary interest and readiness to master curricular material rapidly fades when no time is left for reflection and application, as teachers and students move on to the next required topic in the overcrowded curriculum, desperately trying to meet all the standards and prepare for the test. Substantial research documents that helping students make sense out of something they have assimilated, but do not yet understand is crucial for inducing learning that is retained and generalized (Schank & Jona, 1991). Reflective discussion of shared experiences from multiple perspectives is essential in learners’ converting information into knowledge, as well as in students mastering the collaborative creation of meaning and purpose (Edelson, Pea, & Gomez, 1996).
Some of these interpretative and expressive activities are enhanced by educational devices, but many are best conducted via face-to-face interaction, without the intervening filter and mask of computer-mediated communication (Brown & Campione, 1994). What if instead much of the presentation and motivation that is foundational for learning occurred outside of classroom settings, via information technologies part of home and workplace and community contexts? Students would arrive at school already imbued with some background and motivation, ripe for guided inquiry, ready for interpretation and collaborative construction of knowledge. People are spending lots of money on devices purchased for entertainment and information services: televisions, videotape players, computers, Web TV, videogames. Many of these technologies are astonishingly powerful and inexpensive; for example, the Nintendo 64 machine available now for a couple hundred dollars is the equivalent of a several hundred thousand dollar graphics supercomputer a decade ago. What if these devices—many ubiquitous in rich and poor homes, urban and rural areas—were also utilized for educational purposes, even though not acquired for that reason? By off-loading from classroom settings some of the burden of presenting material and inducing motivation, learning activities that use the technology infrastructure outside of schools would reduce the amount of money needed for adequate levels of classroom-based technology. Such a strategy also enables teachers to focus on students interpretation and expressive articulation without feeling obligated to use technology in every step of the process.
Such a model of “distributed learning” involves orchestrating educational activities among classrooms, workplaces, homes, and community settings (Dede, 1996). This pedagogical strategy models for students that learning is integral to all aspects of life—not just schooling—and that people adept at learning are fluent in using many types of information tools scattered throughout our everyday context. Such an educational approach also can build partnerships for learning between teachers and families; this is important because parental involvement is certainly one of the most powerful levers in increasing any student’s educational performance.
In other words, unless “systemic reform” in education is conducted with one boundary of the system around the school and another boundary around the society, its affordability and sustainability are doubtful. As a bridge across these boundaries, new media can play a vital role in facilitating this bi-level approach to large-scale educational innovation. For example, videogame players are the only interactive devices widely available in poor households and provide a sophisticated, but inexpensive computational platform for learning. My research in virtual reality illustrates how multi-sensory, immersive virtual environments could leverage learning complex scientific concepts on computational platforms as commonplace as next decade’s videogames (http://www.virtual.gmu.edu).
Districts can leverage their scarce resources for innovation, as well as implement more effective educational models, by utilizing information devices outside of classrooms to create learning environments that complement computers and communications in schools. To instead saturate schools with information technology is both very expensive and less educationally effective.

Question Two: How can schools afford enough computers and telecommunications to sustain new models of teaching and learning?
Educational improvement based on distributed learning—utilizing information
technologies external to school settings to enable increased interpretive and expressive activities in classrooms—does not mean that schools won’t need substantial amounts of computers and communications. To empower project-based learning through guided inquiry, students must have access to sophisticated information devices in schools (Linn, 1997). Even if this is accomplished via notebook computers and wireless networks moved from class to class as required, with pupils also spending significant amounts of time learning without the aid of technology, districts must allocate more money to purchasing, maintaining, and upgrading computers and telecommunications than has been true historically. Where will educators find the funds for equipment, software, technical staff, ongoing telecommunications services, professional development—the myriad of costs associated with a sophisticated information infrastructure? In the past, this money has come largely from special external sources: grants, community donations, bond initiatives. To be sustainable over the long run, however, resources for technology must come from reallocating existing budgets by reducing other types of expenditures. Of course, such shifts in financing are resisted by those groups whose resources are cut, and district administrators and school boards have been reluctant to take on the political challenges of changing how money is spent. An easy way to kill educational innovations is to declare that of course they will be implemented—as long as no existing activities must be curtailed to fund new approaches. Such an approach to institutional evolution is one reason why, if Rip Van Winkle awoke today, he would recognize almost nothing in modern society—except schools.
Educational organizations are unique, however, in demanding that technology
implementation accomplished via add-on funding. Every other type of societal institution (e.g. factories, hospitals, retail outlets, banks) recognizes that the power of information devices stems in part from their ability to reconfigure employee roles and organizational functioning. These establishments use the power of technology to alter their standard practices, so that the cost of computers and communications is funded by improvements in effectiveness within the organization, by doing more with less. If educators were to adopt this model—reallocating existing resources to fund technology implementation—what types of expenditures would drop so that existing funds could cover the costs of computers and communications?
First, schools that have adopted the inquiry-based models of pedagogy find that outlays on textbooks and other types of standardized instructional materials decrease. While these materials are a smaller part of districts’ budgets than salaries or physical plants, nonetheless they cost a significant amount of money. When students collect their own data, draw down information across the Internet, and interact with a larger pool of experts than teachers and textbooks, fewer commercial presentational resources are required—especially if learners draw on topical data flowing through information sources outside of schools. Moreover, covering a few concepts in depth rather than surveying many ideas superficially reduces the amount of prepackaged information educators must purchase.
Second way to reconfigure existing financial resources is to reduce the staff involved in data entry operations. Educators are inundated with large amounts of recordkeeping functions, and one of the most debilitating aspects of this work is the continuous reentry of identical information on different forms. Businesses have saved substantial amounts of money by altering routine information processes so that data is only entered once, then automatically flows across the entire organization to each place in which it is needed. Were educators to adopt these already proven models for cost-efficient information management, the amount of time and staff required for data entry functions would decrease markedly, freeing funding for instruction-related uses of technology.
Third, and on a more fundamental level, teaching is more efficient and effective with new types of technology-based curriculum and pedagogy. At present, substantial re-teaching of knowledge and skills is required; presentational material flows into students’ minds, is retained just long enough to perform on a test, and then is forgotten. Class sizes are typically between twenty-five and forty—somewhat too large for effective project-based learning, yet small given that lectures work as well for several hundred students as for several dozen. The scheduling of class periods is too short, limiting teachers and students to fragmentary presentational and practice activities. Teachers all have comparable roles with similar pay structures—unlike other societal organizations, which have complementary staff roles with a mix of skill levels and salaries. Visions presented in the forthcoming 1998 ASCD Yearbook (Dede & Palumbo, in press) depict how altered configurations of human resources, instructional modalities, and organizational structures could result in greater effectiveness for comparable costs—even with the acquisition of substantial school-based technology. This case is also made at greater length in Hunter & Goldberg (1995).
In the commercial sector, too often these types of institutional shifts result in layoffs. However, because of the coming wave of retirements among educators, districts have a window of opportunity to accomplish structural changes without major adverse impacts on employees. Over the next decade, large numbers of “baby-boom” educators will leave the profession, and a staged process of organizational restructuring could occur in parallel with those retirements. Coordinating technology expenditures as an integral part of that larger framework for institutional evolution is vital in districts’ planning to afford computers and communications.
Question Three: How can many educators disinterested or phobic about computers and communications be induced to adopt new technology-based models of teaching and learning?
Thus far, most educators who use technology to implement the alternative types of pedagogy and curriculum are “pioneers”: people who see continuous change and growth as an integral part of their profession and who are willing to swim against the tide of conventional operating procedures—often at considerable personal cost. However, to achieve large-scale shifts in standard educational practices, many more teachers must alter their pedagogical approaches; and schools’ management, institutional structure, and relationship to the community must change in fundamental ways. This requires that “settlers” (people who appreciate stability and do not want heroic efforts to become an everyday requirement) must be convinced to make the leap to a different mode of professional activity—with the understanding that, once they have mastered these new approaches, their daily work will be sustainable without extraordinary exertion. How can a critical mass of educators in a district be induced simultaneously to make such a shift?
Studies of innovation in other types of institutions indicate that successful change is always bottom-up, middle-out, and top-down. The driver for bottom-up innovation in a district is the children. Typically, students are joyful and committed when they are given the opportunity to learn by doing, to engage in collaborative construction of knowledge, and to experience mentoring relationships. That these types of instruction are accomplished via educational technology will excite some kids, while others will be indifferent—but all will appreciate the opportunity to move beyond learning by listening. Educators can draw enormous strength and purpose from watching the eager response of their students to classroom situations that use alternative forms of pedagogy. Often, teachers have shifted from pioneers to settlers because they were worn down by the unceasing grind of motivating students to master uninteresting, fragmented topics; and administrators have undergone a similar loss of enthusiasm by being inundated with paperwork rather than serving as instructional coordinators. The professional commitment that kids’ enthusiasm can re-inspire is a powerful driver of bottom-up change. The source of middle-out change is a district’s pioneers. Many teachers entered the profession because they love students of a certain age and want to help them grow—or love their subject matter and want to share its beauty and richness. Often, these teachers feel alienated because the straightjacket of traditional instruction and school organization walls them away from meaningful relationships with their students and their subject. Similarly, many administrators want to serve as leaders and facilitators, but are forced by conventional managerial practices into being bureaucrats and bosses. Middle-out change is empowered when educators who have given up hope of achieving their professional dreams see pioneer colleagues using technology to succeed in those goals—and realize that, if everyone made a similar commitment, no one would have to make continuous personal sacrifices to achieve this vision.
The lever for top-down innovation is the community served by the district. Educators want respect—yet teaching has fallen from a revered professions to a much lower status. The relationship between educators and their community is seldom seen as a partnership; instead, teachers and administrators often feel isolated, forced to perform a difficult task with inadequate resources. Parents, the business sector, and taxpayers bitterly debate the purpose of schools and sometimes attempt to micro-manage their operation. In contrast, when homes, classrooms, workplaces and community settings are linked via new media to achieve distributed learning, much more positive interactions emerge between schools and society. Educators can move from isolation to collaboration with the community, from a position of low esteem to an respected role in orchestrating children’s learning across a spectrum of settings. This shift in status is a powerful driver for innovation. To activate these bottom-up, middle-out, and top-down forces for improvement, educators must take the lead in developing a shared vision for systemic reform, distributed learning, and sophisticated utilization of technology. Making such a commitment to large-scale educational innovation is not only the right thing to do, but is increasingly essential to educators’ professional integrity. In many ways, physicians working in health maintenance organizations (HMOs) face challenges similar to teachers and administrators working in today’s schools. These doctors are responsible for the well-being of their patients, but work within administrative structures that restrict their decision making capabilities, that are focused on saving money at least as much as on combating illness, and that do not provide the latest technology or much time and resources for professional development. Yet we expect those physicians to do whatever it takes—fight the system for what the patient needs, spend personal time mastering the latest medical advances and technologies—to help those whom they serve. To do otherwise would be malpractice, a betrayal of trust, a breach of ethics as a professional. Given advances in information technology that are reshaping the knowledge students need and the ways educators can help them learn, we need to accept a professional obligation—despite current institutional constraints—to do whatever it takes in changing traditional instructional practices so that a generation of children is truly prepared for the 21st century.

Question Four: How do we prove to communities that new, technology-based models of teaching and learning are better than current instructional approaches?
Few communities are willing to take educational innovations “on faith.” Many people are uneasy about whether conventional instruction and traditional testing are developing and assessing the types of knowledge and skills children need for their future. However, most parents and taxpayers feel that the current system worked for them and do not want to substitute something radically different unless new methods are proven to be superior. What types of evidence can educators offer communities that innovative, technology-based models of teaching and learning are so much better—given what our society needs in the 21st century—that the substantial cost and effort of systemic reform is more than worth the trouble?
Research documents that new, technology-based pedagogical strategies result in at least four kinds of improvements in educational outcomes. Some of these gains are easy to communicate to the community; others are difficult—but together they constitute a body of evidence that can convince most people. These four types of improvements are listed below, in sequence from the most readily documented to the hardest to demonstrate.
Increased learner motivation.
Students are very excited when exposed to learning experiences that go beyond information assimilation and teaching-by-telling. Guided inquiry, project-based collaboration, and mentoring relationships all evoke increased learner motivation, manifested via readily observable indicators such as better attendance, higher concentration, and greater time on task. All of these not only correlate with increased educational performance, but also are in stark contrast to the attitudes parents and taxpayers formed about most of their schooling. Documenting to communities that students care about what they are learning and are working hard to achieve complex goals is not difficult, given the ubiquity of videotape players and camcorders. Student-produced videos that show learners engaged and excited are intriguing to parents and taxpayers, who may not fully understand what is happening in the classroom, but are impressed by student behavior divergent from their own memories and likely to result in better learning outcomes. Too often, educators take little advantage of this easy way to open a dialogue about instructional improvement with the community.
Advanced topics mastered.
Whatever else they believe about the purposes of schooling, parents want their children to have a prosperous lifestyle and know that this necessitates mastering advanced concepts. In the 21st century, being a successful worker and an informed citizen will require the sophisticated knowledge delineated in the national curriculum standards, especially in the sciences and mathematics. Information technology can help students not only to learn these difficult concepts, but also to master the learning-how-to-learn skills needed to keep their capabilities current in a rapidly evolving economy. When shown that technology based instructional strategies enable teaching sophisticated ideas not now part of the conventional curriculum, more complex than the items on current standardized tests, and harder than what they learned in school, taxpayers are impressed.
Students acting as experts do.
Developing in learners the ability to use problem solving processes similar to those of experts is challenging, but provides powerful evidence that students are gaining the skills they will need to succeed in the 21st century. One of the most striking features of a classroom based on new instructional models is that learners are behaving as do teams of scientists, mathematicians, designers, or other kinds of expert problem solvers. Pupils’ activities in these learning environments mirror the analytic, interpretive, creative, and expressive uses of information tools increasingly characteristic of sophisticated workplace settings. When parents and taxpayers see students perform complex tasks and create intricate products, they are impressed by the similarity between the recent evolution of their own workplaces and the skills children are developing.
Better outcomes on standardized tests.
The most difficult type of evidence to provide for the superiority of new, technology-based instructional models is what communities first demand: higher scores on conventional measures of achievement. Standardized tests are designed to assess only a narrow range of knowledge, and the other three types of improvements just discussed fall largely outside the scope of what they measure. A major challenge for educational assessment is to develop methods that measure a wider range of skills than paper-and-pencil, multiple choice tests, without bogging educators down in complex, time-consuming, and potentially unreliable performance evaluations. Research shows that students’ outcomes on conventional achievement tests rise when technology-based educational innovations are implemented, but this does not occur immediately, as teachers and learners must first master these new models of pedagogy. To succeed in systemic reform, educators must prepare communities for the fact that test scores will not instantly rise and that other, complementary types of improvements less easy to report quantitatively are better short-range measures of improvement. Overall, the single most effective means of convincing parents, the business community, and taxpayers that technology-based models of teaching are superior to conventional instructional approaches is to involve them in students’ education. Through distributed learning approaches that build partnerships between schools and society, communities have ample opportunities to observe the types of evidence discussed above, as well as to further enhance students’ educational outcomes.

Question Five: How can educational technology increase equity rather than widen current gaps between “haves” and “have-nots?”
Implemented within a larger context of systemic reform, emerging information technologies can produce dramatic improvements in learning outcomes. But won’t such educational usage of computers and communications widen inequities in our society? However ample the access to technology students have in schools, learners differ greatly in the amount and sophistication of information devices in their homes and communities. Isn’t all this effort simply making education better for the “haves,” potentially worsening our society’s pathological gaps in income and power? Certainly, new media such as Web TV are dropping in price, and almost all homes have videogames, television, and videotape players—but won’t the rich always have more information devices of greater power than the poor, skewing the advantages of distributed learning and increasing inequality?
From an historical perspective, innovative information technologies at first widen inequities within civilization, because initial access to the differential advantage they bring is restricted to the few who can afford the substantial expense of this increased power. As emerging media mature, drop in price, and are widely adopted, however, the ultimate impact of information technology is to make society more egalitarian. For example, the world of universal telephone service is a more equitable environment than was the world of messenger boys and telegraph offices. The challenge for current educational policy is to minimize the period during which the gap between haves and have-nots widens, rapidly moving to a maturity of usage and an universality of access that promotes increased equity. At present, most of society’s attempts to decrease the widened inequalities that new educational technologies could create are centered on access and literacy. In schools that serve disadvantaged and at-risk populations, extra efforts are made to increase the amount of computers and communications available. Similarly, educators and learners in have-not situations are given special training to ensure that they are literate in information tools, such as web
browsers. To compensate for more home-based technology in affluent areas, many feel that our best strategy is providing teachers and students in low socioeconomic status areas with additional technology to “level the playing field” (Coley, Cradler, & Engel, 1997). While a good place to begin, this approach to educational equity is inadequate unless taken beyond access and literacy to also address issues of content and services. The on-line materials and types of assistance that learners and teachers can access must reflect the needs and interests of diverse and at-risk students. For example, I can take homeless people to the public library and show them how to use a web browser to download images of impressionist paintings at the Louvre, but this is not likely to motivate or impress them, since such a learning experience does not speak to their primary needs. Similarly, emerging graphical interfaces such as Microsoft Windows™ enhance many users’ capabilities, but adversely affect learners with reduced eyesight who cannot effectively manipulate the visual features of these interfaces.
The real issue in equity is empowerment—tailoring information technology to give dispossessed groups what they want. For example, I worked with a local team of politicians to explore the implications of information technology for improving public services. They were excited about using community-based information terminals to offer improved access to health care, welfare, education, and other social services for the immigrant and minority populations they served. However, when I began to describe how on-line communication tools could help these groups to increase their participation in voting and to form coalitions for political action, the elected representatives immediately lost interest. To truly achieve educational equity, working collaboratively with have-not populations is vital in developing content and services tailored to their needs and designed to build on their strengths and agendas. Otherwise, improving access and literacy will fall short of the success for all students essential to America’s prosperity in the 21st century.

Question Six: If we use technology well, what should we expect as “typical” student performance?
If we were to implement systemic reform based on new strategies for learning through sophisticated technology, research suggests that “typical” students might do as well as “exemplary” learners do now. Our expectations for what pupils can accomplish are far too low, largely because standard educational processes are obsolete given the progression of information technology, insights into the nature of learning, and shifts in the educational outcomes society needs. In many ways, we live in the “Dark Ages” of schooling—restrained from making rapid advances toward increased instructional effectiveness by outmoded ideas, ritual, and tradition. Setting our sights higher and using better metrics to measure progress are vital to successful innovation. For example, many people are intrigued by results from the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), which show the United States well behind nations such as Singapore and Japan on math and science outcomes from a globally developed achievement test. Crusaders are implementing reforms to ensure that our students do much better on this test. However, our goal should not be to exceed the level of Singapore on an assessment instrument that, as described earlier, measures only a fraction of what students need to know for their future prosperity—and moreover incorporates a diluted definition of educational quality negotiated across many countries with very different populations and national goals. Others advocate using a standards-based curriculum as the touchstone for educational effectiveness, and reformers are centering state and national judgments of educational worth on this measure. Certainly, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) standards are a major improvement over the hodgepodge math curriculum before their inception, as are the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) standards and similar efforts in other fields. But our metric for whether students succeed should not simply be whether they learn the math mathematicians think is important, the science scientists feel is vital, and so on. Being a productive worker and citizen involves much more than having an adequate background in each field of knowledge. Integrating these concepts and skills and being a lifelong learner with the self-worth, discipline, and motivation to apply this knowledge is of paramount importance—yet not captured by discipline-based standards alone.
New forms of pedagogy are also no “philosopher’s stone” that can make golden each educational experience for every learner. Some argue that, if only all classrooms were based on constructivist learning or situated cognition or individualized tutoring or multimedia presentations or integrated learning systems or whatever pedagogical panacea, every student would succeed.
However, learning is a very complex and idiosyncratic process that requires, for each pupil, a repertoire of many different types of instruction orchestrated together. In other words, no test, no curriculum, and no instructional strategy in itself can guarantee educational quality—even though our current approach to determining schools’ worth is based on these inadequate measures. Instead, we need new standards for a knowledge-based society that combine all these metrics for success and that are based on much higher levels of “typical” student outcomes.
Successful technology-based innovations have the common characteristic that learners exceed everyone’s expectations for what is possible. Second graders do fifth grade work; nine graders outscore twelfth grade students. What would those ninth graders be accomplishing if, from kindergarten on, they had continuous access to our best tools, curriculum, and pedagogy?
Would they be the equivalent of college sophomores? We are selling short a generation by expecting less and by orienting our curriculum, instruction, and tests accordingly.

Conclusion
My responses to the six questions above sketch a conceptual framework for thinking about the process of scaling-up from islands of innovation to widespread shifts in standard educational practices. These answers illustrate that technology-based systemic reform is hard in part because our ways of thinking about implementation are often flawed. Large-scale educational innovation will never be easy, but can be less difficult if we go beyond our implicit assumptions about learning, technology, equity, schooling, and society. Understanding the scaling-up process is vital for making strategies for change affordable, generalizable, and
sustainable.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUCTIONAL, TECHNOLOGY

1. Cognitive objectives can be achieved effectively by the use of instructional technology. 2. The learner gets opportunity to learn. Individual differences can be controlled though this technology. 3. The right responses of the students are confirmed for providing the reinforcement continuously. 4. It incorporates the physiological learning theories and principles. 5. The learning external conditions contiguity relation practice and reinforcement are created with the help of instruction. 6. The instructional theory may be developed by using this category of technology in learning process. 7. I.T can be employed in shortage of effective teachers. 8. Provides deep insight of the content structure and sequence of its elements. 3. Behavioral Technology It studies the nature and structure of behavior of the organism. “Learning is the modification of behavior through activities and experiences”. Assumptions: · Teacher Behavior is observable. · Teacher behavior is measurable and quantifiable. · Teacher behavior is relative. · Teacher behavior is social and psychological · Teacher behavior is modifiable. 4. Instructional Design: It involves 3 major concepts. 1. Teaching psychology 2. Cybernetic psychology 3. System Analysis Scope of Instructional Technology · Improves teaching learning process. · Can remove defects provided by mass education. · Can make correspondence more effective by Radio, T.V, and Tape recorder. · Limitation of teacher training institutions can be removed. · System analysis can be used to remove administrative problems. · Removes the ineffectiveness of routine theoretical research. · Development of teaching models. · Provides scientific foundation to develop theories of teaching and instruction.

SOCIAL GOALS OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

1) As Cultural Transmission According to Durkheim, society consists of a collection of ideas, sentiments and habits that its members hold in common. We are immersed in an atmosphere of collective ideas and sentiments which we can not voluntarily modify that was what he called, “Collective consciousness “to explain the social order. If we ask the question that, what role the “instructional education“ can play in binding individuals to their society ? Then, Durkheim states that, whole sociological and educational theory is aimed at strengthening the social tries among individuals. And only individual is not the central concern of education, rather It is to be on successfully transmitting culture. 2. As individual growth. The problem of an individual are neglected when there are strong ties in society. There is an opposite’s difference among views of experts e.g. Durkheim says that reasoning begins with the group and moves to individual but Carl Rogers says opposite to it. The aim of instructional technology is not designed to create a new individual. It helps the individual to regain his qualities which he had been unable to gain through socialization. Roger says that the teacher or instructor is a facilitator. He insists that instruction does not mean to teach anybody but it is rather concerned with helping individuals learn what. They want to know and the instruction technology follows the techniques ,methods to help a person to learn something. If people can regain selfhood through educational therapy, they will regain their natural ability to associate with others and community grows when individuals are freed from collective consciousness. Roger moves to the main objective of I. Tech., that people who have undergone successful instructional therapy, no matter what their background or culture, come to share a direction (value) that problems social harmony. They are more able to tolerate change or more open to inner experience. 3. As democratic process. Thoughtless obedience to the will of others produce only “ the other directed personality “ as described by the David Riesman. It was also called impression management by E. Goff man. Davy saw the lack of connection between the individual and society as major problem of modernization. In democratic process when does the instructional technology plays its role? When communities, institutions and other social organizations become inflexible and limit the freedom and innovations and the individual personality become rigid and intolerant of change their instructional technology worries to make the situations flexible and democratic. The intelligent technique / methods of I.Tech offer us freedom to control by routine, prejudice & dogma. It reorganizes people to choice when it exists and the wisdom to choose wisely. Domains and Levels of Instructional Objectives Educational Objectives Stage wise Overall Objectives class/ grade Subject wise Objectives wise objectives Objectives Lesson wise objectives Unit wise objectives The educational objectives can be classified in to 3-main categories according to Blooms Taxonomy. 1. Cognitive Domain These domains can be further classified on the basis of complexity and hierarchy of mental functions. i) Knowledge i.e. events, principles etc. ii) Comprehension i.e. To interpret iii) Application iv) Analysis v) Synthesis i.e. creating (something new) vi) Evaluation 2. Effective Domain: It is concerned with the development of interest, attitude an values. i) Receiving (Attending) i.e. learner willingness to receive ii) Responding i.e. Student attention iii) Valuing i.e. Commitment / Acceptance to value. iv) Organization i.e. Development of attitude. v) Characterization of value complex 3. Psychomotor domain It relates to the development of physical skills. i) Imitation: i.e. Repetition of action ii) Manipulation: i.e. follows direction of acts. ii) Precision: i.e. to produce desired act. iv) Articulation: i.e. acquires skill to present. v) Naturalization: i.e. Habit formation

Instructional Technology M.Ed Chapter 02

2008-02-23T13:59:00.003-08:00

Basic Aspects of Instructional technology
Teaching
The word “teach” comes from old english word “taecan” that is in turn derived from the old Teutonic “taikjan” means to show. The term teach is also related to “Token” i.e. a sign or symbol.
A descriptive definitio of teaching would have been somewhat different from that of today. A descriptive definition then would have been formulated from such nations as to teach is to give infornmation; to show a peson haw to do something; to give lesson in a subject. The conventional sense of teaching now a days is not entirly different.
Teachers need the ability to understand a subject well enough to convey its essence to a new generation of students.The goal is to establish a sound knowledge base on which students will be able to build as they are exposed to different life experiences. The passing of knowledge from generation to generation allows students to grow into useful members of society. Good teachers can translate information, good judgment, experience and wisdom into relevant knowledge that a student can understand and retain. As a profession, teaching has very high levels of Work-Related Stress (WRS) which are listed as amongst the highest of any profession in some countries, such as the United Kingdom. The degree of this problem is becoming increasingly recognized and support systems are put into place.

Nature of Teaching
Previously teaching meant nothing more than giving information and imparting knowledge. It was the time when teaching was regarded as a bipolar process: Teacher and the subject being its two poles.Various aspects of teaching are as under,
1.Teaching a triangular process.
Modren concept of the nature of teaching is that, it is a triangular or tripolar process. The three focal points of this process are the teacher, the child and the subject matter.
2.Teaching is giving information
3. Teaching is causing to learn
4. Teaching is stimulating learning
5. Teaching is givig guidance
6. Teaching is helping the child to make effective adjustment to his environment
7. Teaching is helping the child to develop emotional stability
Teaching will be inediquate if we do not train the emotions of the child and develp his emotional stability. Right actions spring from right feelings. The child should feel a sense of security, which is possible in atmosphere of love and freedom. The teacher should have encouraging and sympathetic attitude towards his pupils.

Pedagogy and teaching
In education, teachers facilitate student learning, often in a school or academy or perhaps in another environment such as outdoors. A teacher who teaches on an individual basis may be described as a tutor.
The objective is typically a course of study, lesson plan, or a practical skill, including learning and thinking skills. The different ways to teach are often referred to as the teacher's pedagogy. When deciding what teaching method to use, a teacher will need to consider students' background knowledge, environment, and their learning objectives. A teacher may follow standardized curricula as determined by the relevant authority. The teacher may interact with students of different ages, from infants to adults, students with different abilities and students with learning disabilities.

Instruction
An instruction is a form of communicated information that is both command and explanation for how an action, behavior, method, or task is to be begun, completed, conducted, or executed.
Instruction may also refer to:
Teaching – teachers are also called instructors.
Sebayt – a work of the ancient Egyptian didactic literature aiming to teach ethical behaviour.
Instruction (computer science) – a single operation of a processor within a computer architecture.
In the context of French law (or inquisitorial systems based on France's), the instruction is the pre-trial phase of a criminal investigation that is led by a judge. More generally, it refers to phases of judicial or administrative proceedings where a request is investigated, and information pertaining to it is collected, before a final decision is made.
Instruction was the name of a rock band from New York City

Education
“Education is the act, process or art of impating knowledge and skill: Instruction, pedagogy, schooling , teaching, training, tution and tutoring.”
A programme of Instruction of specified kind or level: Driver Education: A College Education.
The field of study i.e. concerned with the pedagogy of teaching and learning.

Education has much broader and deeper meaning for our way of living, At the center of their new educational demands stands the teaching profession which is being challenged to meet the needs of our own people for a far better knowledge and understanding of others.
Education systems
Schooling simply occurs when society or a group or class or an individual designs a curriculum to educate people, usually the young. Schooling can become systematic and thorough. Sometimes education systems can be used to promote doctrines or ideals as well as knowledge, which is known as social engineering. This can lead to political abuse of the system, particularly in totalitarian states and government.
Primary education
Primary or elementary education consists of the first years of formal, structured education that occur during childhood..
Secondary education
In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education consists of the second years of formal education that occur during adolescence. It is characterised by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors to the optional, selective tertiary, "post-secondary", or "higher" education (e.g., university, vocational school) for adults.
Higher education
Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage or post secondary education, often known as academia, is the non-compulsory educational level following the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school, secondary school, or gymnasium. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions that provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions.Tertiary education generally results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.
Adult education
Lifelong, or adult, education has become widespread in many countries. However, education is still seen by many as something aimed at children, and adult education is often branded as adult learning or lifelong learning. Adult education takes on many forms, from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning.
Lending libraries provide inexpensive informal access to books and other self-instructional materials. The rise in computer ownership and internet access has given both adults and children greater access to both formal and informal education. There are three Modes of Education. 1-formal education, 2-informal education , 3-Non formal education.
1.Formal Education: The hierarchically structured, chronologically graded education system, running from primary school through the university and including, in addition to general academic studies, a variety of specialized programs and institutions for full time technical and professional training.
2.Informal Education: The truly lifelong process whereby every individual acquires attitude, values, skills and knowledge form daily experience and the educative influences and resources in his or her environment from family and neighbors, from work and play, from the market place the library and the mass media.
3.Non-Formal Education: Any organized educational activity outside the established formal system- whether operating separately or as an important feature of some broader activity that is intended to serve identifiable learning clienteles and learning objectives.
Alternative education
Alternative education, also known as non-traditional education or educational alternative, is a broad term which may be used to refer to all forms of education outside of traditional education (for all age groups and levels of education). This may include both forms of education designed for students with special needs (ranging from teenage pregnancy to intellectual disability) and forms of education designed for a general audience which employ alternative educational philosophies and/or methods.

Learning.
Learning is the acquisition and development of memories and behaviors, including skills, knowledge, understanding, values, and wisdom. It is the product of experience and the goal of education. Learning ranges from simple forms of learning such as habituation and classical conditioning seen in many animal species, to more complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals.

Contents of Learning
Types of learning
1.Simple non-associative learning
Habituation
Sensitization
2.Associative learning
Operant conditioning
Classical conditioning
3.Imprinting
4.Observational learning
5.Play
6.Multimedia learning
7.Electronic learning

Types of learning
1.Simple non-associative learning
(I)Habituation
In psychology, habituation is an example of non-associative learning in which there is a progressive diminution of behavioral response probability with repetition of a stimulus. It is another form of integration. An animal first responds to a stimulus, but if it is neither rewarding nor harmful the animal reduces subsequent responses. One example of this can be seen in small song birds - if a stuffed owl (or similar predator) is put into the cage, the birds initially react to it as though it were a real predator. Soon the birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed owl is introduced (or the same one removed and re-introduced), the birds react to it as though it were a predator, showing that it is only a very specific stimulus that is habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in one place). Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal, including the large protozoan Stentor coeruleus.
(II)Sensitization
Sensitization is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus (Bell et al., 1995). An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that will occur if a person rubs his arm continuously. After a while, this stimulation will create a warm sensation that will eventually turn painful. The pain is the result of the progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves warning the person that the stimulation is harmful. Sensitization is thought to underlie both adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism.
2.Associative learning
(I)Operant conditioning
The term Operant is used becase the behavior activity operates on. OR Has an effect on the environment for laerning to occur. For example….teaching animals to dance, play ping pong etc by systematically rewarding them for desired behaviours. The difference between classical and operant conditioning is that
i) Operant conditioning reinforces responces that are pressumed to be under the conscious control of thr individual while, classical conditionig reinforces involuntary responses.
ii) Classical responses occur as a result of stimuli that occur prior to the response, whereas operant responses are reinforcement by consequences that occur after the behavior.
(II)Classical conditioning
It occurs when a stimulus that elicits (draw out, evoke) a respose, is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicite (draw out, evoke) a response in its own. Over time the second stimulus causes a similar response because it is associated with the first stimulus. For example he noticed that his dogs recreated at the sight of food at feeding time. Pavlove called food as unconditioned stimulus and secretion of saliva as an unconditioned respose. When pavlove paired a neutral stimulus (A bell) with an unconditioned respose, with the passage of time his dogs learned to salivate at the sound of bell. This bell is conditioned stimulus and salivation is a conditioned response.
3.Imprinting
Imprinting is the term used in psychology and ethology to describe any kind of phase-sensitive learning (learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage) that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior. It was first used to describe situations in which an animal or person learns the characteristics of some stimulus, which is therefore said to be "imprinted" onto the subject.
4.Observational learning
The most basic learning process is imitation; one's personal repetition of an observed process, such as a smile. Thus an imitation will take one's time (attention to the details), space (a location for learning), skills (or practice), and other resources (for example, a protected area). Through copying, most infants learn how to hunt (i.e., direct one's attention), feed and perform most basic tasks necessary for survival.
5.Play
Play generally describes behavior which has no particular end in itself, but improves performance in similar situations in the future. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is mostly limited to mammals and birds. Cats are known to play with a ball of string when young, which gives them experience with catching prey. Besides inanimate objects, animals may play with other members of their own species or other animals, such as orcas playing with seals they have caught. Play involves a significant cost to animals, such as increased vulnerability to predators and the risk or injury and possibly infection. It also consumes energy, so there must be significant benefits associated with play for it to have evolved. Play is generally seen in younger animals, suggesting a link with learning. However, it may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning, for example improving physical fitness.
6.Multimedia learning
The learning associated with multimedia learning environments (Mayer, 2001). This type of learning relies of dual-coding theory (Paivio, 1971).
7.Electronic learning
Electronic learning or E-learning is a general term used to refer to computer-enhanced learning.

2.3.(a)Phases of Teaching
We can categorize teaching phases as under
1. Introduction i.e. Statement of aims and objectives
· Linkage
· Motivation
· objectives
2. Development-I (Examination Phase)
· Attend
· Classify
· Label
Development-II (Interpretation Phase)
· Identify
· Explain
· Conclude
Development-III (Application Phase)
· Practice
· Encouragement
· Correction
3. Consolidation Phase (Review of contents)
· Reinforce
· Challenge
· Assess
· Mastery
4. Evaluation Phase
· Questions
· Evaluation sheet
· Produce linkage to next lesson

2.3.(b)Phases of Instruction
Many current instructional models suggest that the most effective learning products or environments are those that are problems-centered and involve the students in four distinct phases of learning.
1. problem centered instruction
2. activation or prior experience
3. demonstration of skills
4. application of skills and
5. Integration of these skills in to real world activities.
Problem centered instructions
Learning is promoted when learners are engaged in solving real world problems by
· Showing tasks: to compete for a problem
· Task level: Most cognitive process
· Progression i.e. solving a progression of problems that are explicitly compare to one another.

1. Activation Phase
Learning is promoted when previous experience is activated and new experiences provide foundation and organization of new knowledge.

2. Demonstration Phase
Demonstration means telling what is to be learned? It depends upon
1. Consistency of demonstration by
· Examples for concepts
· Procedures
· Modeling behavior
· Visualizations for processes
2. Learner guidance by
· Relevant information
· Multiple representations
· Comparative demonstrations
3. Providing relevant media i.e. Increasing cognitive load

3. Application Phase
Learning is promoted when the learners are required to use their new knowledge to solve problems by
· Practice consistency using
1. different information
2. different paths of practice
3. different kinds of practice
· Diminishing coaching i.e. Learning is promoted when learners are guided in their problems solving by appropriate feed back and coaching, including error dictation and correction, and when this coaching is gradually withdrawn.
· Varied problems i.e. learning is promoted when learners are required to solve a sequence of varied problems.

4. Integration Phase
Learning is promoted when learners are encouraged to integrate (Transfer) the new knowledge or skill in to their everyday life using,
· Watch me i.e. learning is promoted when learners are given an opportunity to publicly demonstrate their new knowledge or skill.
· Reflection i.e. learning is promoted when learners can reflect on, discuss, and defend their new knowledge or skill.
· Creation i.e. learning is promoted when learners can create, invent, and explore new and personal ways to use their new knowledge or skill.

2.4.Principles and Maxims of Teaching
The maxims of teachings mean principals of teaching. It can be discussed in following points.
1. Proceed from known to unknown.
It as said that the old knowledge serves as a book from which the new can be hanged, so that the new knowledge may be acceptable.
2. Proceed from analysis to synthesis
Analysis consists in talking a thing apart in to its elements. Synthesis is the complement of analysis.
3.Proceed from simple to complex
The teacher should keep up the interest of the pupils in the lessons by presenting easier and simpler materials to be followed latter by complex and difficult materials.
4.Proceed from whole to part
Whole is more meaningful to the child than to learning of the part. The part approach to learning tends to ignore needs. Learners have to develop some kinds of a frame of reference that will help them to relate one aspect of what is to be learned.
5.Proceed from concrete to abstract
It is very important for the child to be able to abstract idea. To achieve this purpose, we should approach child via concrete objects, activating and examples.
6. Proceed from the particular to the general
Particular facts and examples should be presented to children before giving them general rules and principles, as they are easier to follow. The process of induction is easier to understand than the so called fact.
7. Proceed from Empirical to Rational
It can further be subdivided in to
1. Obstructional i.e Problematic in observation and learning.
2. Argumentive i.e. logical reasoning to solve problems.
8. Proceed from psychological to logical
We should proceed teaching by taking in to consideration the child’s interests, needs and mental makeup.
9.Proceed from the actual to the representative
The child learns more quickly from the actual and real objects. Whenever possible the teacher should show the real object. This is particularly indeed, in the earlier classes, as the information of small children is limited, for them it is always safe to proceed from concrete to abstract, from actual to representative, from near to distant.

Instructional Technology M.Ed Chapter 03

2008-02-23T13:59:00.001-08:00

Chapter 03

Instructional, Technology and Teacher, Instructor

3.1 Characteristics of Effective Teachers/Instructor
Though there seems to be a prevailing assumption that effective teaching cannot be defined, the research literature indicates otherwise. The studies below have identified some of the characteristics of teachers who are defined as "effective" by students, peers, and administrators. It is a good idea to keep this list in mind as you prepare to teach and as you monitor your teaching throughout the semester.
Components of Effective Teaching as Perceived by Students
1. Analytic/Synthetic Approach
a. Discusses points of view other than his/her own.
b. Contrasts implications of various theories.
c. Discusses recent developments in the field.
d. Presents origins of ideas and concepts.
e. Gives references for more interesting and involved points.
f. Presents facts and concepts from related fields.
g. Emphasizes conceptual understanding.
2. Organization/Clarity
a. Explains clearly.
b. Is well prepared.
c. Gives lectures that are easy to outline.
d. Is careful and precise in answering questions.
e. Summarizes major points.
f. States objectives for each class session.
g. Identifies what he/she considers important.
3. Instructor-Group Interaction
a. Encourages class discussion.
b. Invites students to share their knowledge and experiences.
c. Clarifies thinking by identifying reasons for questions.
d. Invites criticism of his/her own ideas.
e. Knows if the class is understanding him/her or not.
f. Has interest and concern in the quality of his/her teaching.
g. Has students apply concepts to demonstrate understanding.
4. Instructor--Individual Student Interaction
a. Has a genuine interest in students.
b. Is friendly toward students.
c. Relates to students as individuals.
d. Recognizes and greets students out of class.
e. Is accessible to students out of class.
f. Is valued for advice not directly related to the course.
g. Respects students as persons.
5. Dynamism/Enthusiasm
a. Is a dynamic and energetic person.
b. Has an interesting style of presentation.
c. Seems to enjoy teaching.
d. Is enthusiastic about the subject.
e. Seems to have self-confidence.
f. Varies the speed and tone of his/her voice.
g. Has a sense of humor.
B. Characteristics of Effective Teachers Most Often
Mentioned
1. They get Wright down to business.
2. They teach at a fast pace.
3. They use a variety of instructional strategies.
4. They stay with their subjects.
5. They use humor.
6. They have command of their classes.
7. They interact with the students.
a. Give immediate response to student question or answer.
b. Provide corrective feedback.
c. Use probing questions.
d. Praise correct answers with an observation based on the answer (i.e., an Explanation of why the answer was correct).
8. Provide a "warm classroom climate."
a. Students free to interrupt at any time.
b. Spontaneous introduction of humor.
9. Nonverbal behavior
a. Uses gestures frequently.
b. Walk around as they talk.
c. Extensive use of eye-contact.
D. Characteristics of Effective Large-Class Instructors
By combining the comments from both the students and instructors who took part in this study, it was found that the characteristics of an effective large-class instructor are:
1. Enthusiasm about the subject.
2. Knowledge of the subject and the ability to communicate this knowledge.
3. Cares about the progress and welfare of the students.
4. Dares to discipline (govern) to eliminate unnecessary talking, etc.
5. Has a sense of humor.
6. Uses a variety of instructional strategies.
7. Interacts with students during, as well as before and after class.
8. Has confidence in him/herself and what he/she is doing.
E. A Checklist for Good Teaching
1. Good teaching tests pre-requisite skills.
2. Good teaching provides feedback to the teacher.
a. Non-credit tests, quizzes
b. Discussions with students
c. Questionnaires
d. Non-verbal messages
1) Drops in attendance
2) Students sleeping
3) Students reading newspaper
3. Good teaching adapts to individual differences.
4. Good teaching provides (specific) feedback to the students.
5. Good teaching is flexible.
6. Good teaching promotes active student learning.
7. Good teaching motivates students.
8. Good teaching is clear and well-organized.

3.2 Instructional technology as comprehensive technology
For organizations to take full advantage of the potential benefits of learning objects, learning objects must become an integrated part of the instructional technology infrastructure. This chapter will describe the theoretical framework we use to conceptualize and work with learning objects, the core issues that led to this effort, the principles that guide our approach, the solution that we are working toward, the particular role of learning objects in that solution, as well as the benefits that we anticipate as a result. The goal of the chapter is to provide a sense of the far-reaching impacts of our decision to use digital learning objects at the core of our instructional technology systems, including some of the obstacles that must be overcome.
Theoretical Framework
Learning Object
We define “learning objects” as digital media that is designed and/or used for instructional purposes. These objects range from maps and charts to video demonstrations and interactive simulations and might be “instructional-generative,” but hope to begin producing this type in the near future.
It generally includes durability, accessibility, reusability, discoverability, extensibility, affordability, and manageability of learning objects. The central benefit of learning objects upon which most institutions focus, including our own, is their potential for reuse. Generally, the most expensive elements of instruction to produce are the media intensive assets. If these assets could be reused, the argument goes; production costs could be greatly reduced. This, in theory, provides the primary financial rationale that justifies investment in the infrastructure required to realize a learning object centered system.
Growing Independent Study Program
At the same time, we are seeing sharp enrollment increases in both our paper-and-pencil and Internet-based Independent Study course offerings. Total enrollment is nearing 50,000 with about 10,000 online enrollments. This represents an expanding constituency of learners who desire high-quality, remotely accessible courses.
Multiple Learning Environments
As a partial solution to the expanding student base, we have begun to explore using online courses to accommodate more students both on- and off-campus. Consequently, we find ourselves facing at least three distinct instructional settings where effective use of technology to aid learning is desired. These are 1) on-campus courses where media is used in classroom presentation, 2) hybrid courses where media may be used both during classroom sessions and in online sessions, and 3) independent study online courses where media supports the instruction of students who will never meet in a classroom. As technology continues to evolve, we anticipate more and more learning environment configurations, each with its own set of capabilities and constraints.
Complex Media Management
The previous four problems can create a nightmare scenario for the management of a university’s media assets. If media is incompatible, inaccessible, and esoteric, and if each asset requires a different delivery method, it is very difficult for a user or manager to know 1) what assets exist, 2) where they reside, 3) what their physical condition is, 4) if they are useful for a particular context, 5) if the correct media player is available to display the desired media at the desired location, and 6) if the person who wants to use it will know how to work that player.
Meet Present Needs While Anticipating Future Adaptation
Too often, institutions of higher education adopt an approach to instructional technology that benefits only the most technologically advanced. They may choose an approach that, in order to be successful, requires instructors and learners to come rapidly up to speed on complex technical tools. New and faster computers and sophisticated software is made available to faculty members who have the time and inclination to jump in, but their less technically adept – or simply overworked – colleagues are left wringing their hands in the shadows of the new faculty techno-stars. Anyone still teaching in a normal classroom with normal students is in danger of becoming disenfranchised and being characterized as “old school” and out-of-date.
Streamline Design, Development, and Delivery
Because demand for instructional media is increasing rapidly all over the university, it was imperative that we ensure that the process of designing, developing, and delivering media become more efficient. A common source of inefficiency in this process at many institutions is the tendency for both university faculty and instructional designers to take an artisan approach to the development of instructional media. In this approach, the creator of the media works alone or perhaps with one other person. The instructional media is designed and developed with little outside feedback or technical expertise. The faculty member or designer is generally learning the technology as they create the media and focus their efforts on meeting only their needs. We felt we needed to streamline this process by bringing more technical expertise to bear and by implementing a more disciplined development process. We also wanted to be sure that these efficiencies weren’t lost in an unwieldy delivery system that introduced inefficiencies of its own.
Improve Quality
Finally, it was continually our focus to improve the quality of the instruction both in the classroom and online. A key feature of this was to involve an instructional designer in every university-funded project. This would increase the chances that instruction, rather than a particular favored technology, was in the driver’s seat. We also recognized that while many faculty members are excellent teachers and researchers, their background in areas such as interface design or Internet-based instruction is usually limited. Some models of development do little more than put relatively high-end development tools in the hands of the faculty member or their teaching assistants, leaving them the entire task of design and development. Rather than forcing them into a role to which they were not suited or trained, it was our goal to bring to them the support of instructional designers, graphic designers, illustrators, 3-D animators, media designers and programmers to create a product that was exemplary in content, instructional approach, visual design, and technical soundness.
Involve Students
Finally, we felt a strong commitment to integrating students into the process of developing instructional media. As a result, we organized the Center for Instructional Design in such a way that each area was overseen by professionals, but staffed by students. Our full-time instructional designers, artists, animators, audio/video producers, and programmers number less than 50 while the number of students working in those areas totals more than 150. This approach helps to keep wages down while providing invaluable practical experience for students seeking work in media-related fields.
The Solution
The title of this section may be a bit optimistic. The solution described below represents our best present thinking in this area. Because the solution will evolve over time, we have focused the discussion below on those aspects that we anticipate will remain stable over the course of several years.
All Digital Delivery
As long as media and equipment was being shuffled from here to there by humans, stored and hoarded in climate-controlled basements, or just piled on a faculty members office floor, we were never going to be able to leverage our resources in a meaningful way. The common language we chose was ones and zeros – we committed to an all-digital delivery system.
Additionally, we need to designe a “tele-podium” in each classroom. The tele-podium consists of the following:
A VCR
A computer with:
· Basic office software
· A CD/DVD-ROM player
· A Zip Drive
· Speakers
· Access to the Internet
· Access to a network drive where instructors can upload materials for classroom use from their offices
· A connection to our campus cable TV network
· A set of connections to accommodate a laptop
Reusable Learning Objects
At the center of this infrastructure is a heavy reliance on reusable learning objects. In our experience, objects are most useful for instructional reuse when they center around a single, core concept. The exceptions to this are objects designed to assess learning. These, we have found, are most useful when they address several related concepts at once.
For example, we have several individual objects that encourage a learner to explore each aspect of Newton’s 1st Law of Motion, including a slow motion video of a car crash and an interactive simulation of a man “surfing” on ice in the back of a moving pick-up truck. However, to assess the learner’s understanding, we created a context dependent item set as a single object. In this object, the learner is asked a series of questions about a woman in a moving elevator to cover several facets of the concept at once.
The Payoff Lower Costs
As expected, the initial expenditure on this system has been higher than for previous technologies. However, we expect long-term financial benefits. These potentially include:
Lower Development Costs. We expect that wide-spread use of instructional design learning object templates will speed development and allow non-experts to created fairly sophisticated media that can be used both in the classroom and online.
Lower Delivery Costs. Once the digital delivery system and the digital library are fully in place, we anticipate that we will save money by eliminating the overhead of a large human delivery organization and maintaining a large amount of media delivery equipment. We also hope to lower our maintenance cost of the media itself, since it will no longer wear out with repeated use.
More Reuse. We expect a significant percentage of the learning objects that we are creating to be reused in many contexts. By having a large library available, we hope to reduce the cost of duplicate media considerably.
More Participation
By publishing standards, making development tools available, and promoting an object approach to developing, we expect to see much more participation on the part of the faculty
Conclusion
Without learning objects at the center of the design, most of the problems we are trying to address would remain relatively unaffected, even if the other changes to the system described above were made. For example, migrating to a fully digital delivery system or setting development priorities, while significant steps, only address part of the need and do little to address cost effectiveness. Even though we are clearly still in the formative phase of our implementation, we are gratified to see that instructors are already reusing objects in their individual classrooms that were originally developed for online courses and vice versa. From a practical standpoint, this marks the beginning of the kind of reuse that, if prevalent, will signal the success of the system or, if absent, the failure. To reach this point, extraordinary coordination and cooperation by disparate university entities has been required. While difficult at times, we have discovered that as we overcome traditional barriers between academic entities and service organizations, we discover new efficiencies that invigorate the entire institution. As more academic publishers and institutions of learning commit to a similar model and make their objects publicly available for reuse, we anticipate these efficiencies will grow exponentially. By that time, we hope to have progressed to the point where using and reusing digital learning objects is as typical a part of on- and off-campus academic life as opening a textbook. And that simply opening a textbook can no longer be considered typical.

Instructional Technology M.Ed Chapter 04

2008-02-23T13:58:00.002-08:00

Instructional strategies

4.1: Meaning of Method, Tactic, Strategy and Technique

Method
1. An orderly procedure or process; regular manner of doing anything; hence, manner; way; mode; as, a method of teaching languages; a method of improving the mind.
2. Orderly arrangement, elucidation, development, or classification; clear and lucid exhibition; systematic arrangement peculiar to an individual.
3. Classification; a mode or system of classifying natural objects according to certain common characteristics; as, the method of Theophrastus; the method of Ray; the Linnaean method.

Tactic
A tactic is a conceptual action used by a military unit of no larger than a division to implement a specific mission and achieve a specific objective, or to advance toward a specific goal. A tactic is implemented as one or more tasks. These concepts can be defined as a hierarchy:

Strategy
According to George Steiner
1. Strategy refers to basic directional decisions, that is, to purposes and missions.
2. Strategy consists of the important actions necessary to realize these directions.
3. Strategy answers the question: What should the organization be doing?
4. Strategy answers the question: What are the ends we seek and how should we achieve them?

Strategy According to Henry Mintzberg
1. Strategy is a pattern in actions over time; for example, a company that regularly markets very expensive products is using a "high end" strategy.
2. Strategy is position; that is, it reflects decisions to offer particular products or services in particular markets.
3. Strategy is perspective, that is, vision and direction.

Mintzberg argues that strategy emerges over time as intentions collide with and accommodate a changing reality. Thus, one might start with a perspective and conclude that it calls for a certain position, which is to be achieved by way of a carefully crafted plan, with the eventual outcome and strategy reflected in a pattern evident in decisions and actions over time. This pattern in decisions and actions defines what Mintzberg called "realized" or emergent strategy.

Strategy According to Kenneth Andrews
"Strategy is the pattern of decisions that determines and reveals its objectives, purposes, or goals, produces the principal policies and plans for achieving those goals”.
What Is Strategy?
What, then, is strategy? Is it a plan? Does it refer to how we will obtain the ends we seek? Is it a position taken? Just as military forces might take the high ground prior to engaging the enemy; might a business take the position of low-cost provider? Or does strategy refer to perspective, to the view one takes of matters, and to the purposes, directions, decisions and actions stemming from this view? Lastly, does strategy refer to a pattern in our decisions and actions?
Strategy is all these—it is perspective, position, plan, and pattern. Strategy is the bridge between policy or high-order goals on the one hand and tactics or concrete actions on the other. Strategy and tactics together straddle the gap between ends and means. In short, strategy is a term that refers to a complex web of thoughts, ideas, insights, experiences, goals, expertise, memories, perceptions, and expectations that provides general guidance for specific actions in pursuit of particular ends.

Strategy versus Tactics
The terms tactics and strategy are often confused: tactics are the actual means used to gain an objective, while strategy is the overall campaign plan, which may involve complex operational patterns activity and decision-making that lead to tactical execution.

Technique
A technique is a procedure used to accomplish a specific activity or task using,
1.Technology, the study of or a collection of techniques
2.Skill, the ability to perform a task
3.Scientific technique, any systematic method to obtain information of a scientific nature

4.2:Types of Teaching Strategies.
A teacher organises his activities of teaching to bring about the desireable change in the behaviour of the learner.Thus the stuendts are forced to achieve learning objectives. Most of the teaching strategies are selected to be used by students with their full capacity.They attempt to achieve maximum students performance.Therefore, it is essential to know about different teaching strategies in terms of their affectiveness in achieving different kinds of learing objectives,These are the means for realizing the learining objectives. Teaching strategies can be classified under the following two heads.

(A) Autocratic Style.
The autocratic style of teaching strategies are traditional.These strategies achieve different objectives more than preissive style of teaching.The autocratic style is content centered and teacher remains more active and students are like passive listeners.The autocratic style realize cognitive objectives while prremissive teaching tend to achive effective objectives.
The strategies do not consider the students abilities, intersts and personalitiy of the learner.There is no freedom for the learner in teaching process.These are highly subjective and conventional style of teaching stratigies. A detailed description of such stratigies have been given below:
It involves the following strategies
(1). Lecture
It is the oldest teching method in our schools. It may be used to achieve the cognitive and effective objective and to realize the highest order of cognitive objective.
Lecture lays emphasis on the presentation of the content.Teacher is more active and students are more passive participants but he uses question answe technique to keep them attentive in the class.Teacher controls and plans for all the students acts.
Advantages of Lecture style.
1. The habit of concentration may be develpped among these students.
2. It is an economical teaching stratigy.
3. Very high order of the cognitive objectives may be achieved.
4. The personality of teacher influences the learner personality.
5. Teacher can employee his full verbal communications.
6. Provides opportunity to the teacher to use different type of teaching aids.
Disadvantages of lecture style.
1. Gives more emphasis on teacher presentaiton and has no place for the participaton of the students.
2. Cannot be applied to elementary classes.
3. Teacher activities are dominated and students abilities interests and learning are ignored.
4. It is not based upon the prinicipal of psychology i.e. individual differences are not considred.
5. It can not be used to achive psychomotor objectives and highest order of effective objectives.
6. usually teacher deviates from the subject contents and teaching points.
Suggestions.
1. The language of the lecture should be simple, easy & comprehensive.
2. The developing questions should be asked to make the students attentive in the class.
3. The students remian in active and passive participants, hence the teachers uses humour to release their tention.
4. Lecture style should be used from secondary level to upward classes.
5. Teacher should use teaching aids like maps, charts, diagrams,picturs etc.

(2) Lesson demonstration
The lesson demonstration stratigy is a traditional class room method which is used in technical schools and training colleges.It is widely used by teacher- educators during teaching practice. As a technique it is less autocratic than a lecture but considerably permissive than a discussion.
Focus:It is used for achieving the psycomotor and cognitive objectives.
Structure:It consists of three successive steps:
· Introduction i.e. aims are stated
· Development i.e. question answer and other class activities
· Integration i.e lesson material is rehearsed, revised & evaluated.
Limitation.
1. It does not provide an opportunity to develop originality of pupil teachers.They try to imitate the model lessons in their teaching.
2. Teachers educator can not demonstrate the lesson correctly and effectively.
Suggestions:
· An efective or skilled teachers should demonstrate the lesson.
· The pupil teachers should be given an opportunity to seek the clarification of their problems.
· The lesson demonstration shuld be followed by discussion.
· The lesson demonstration shuld be used as a supplementary technique in simmulated social skill training.

(3) Tutorials
This strategy is considered both autocratic and permissive type of teaching.It is generally considred to be one of the most valuable educational experiences.Tutorial are highly indivualized type of teaching.
Focus: It provides remedial help to the learner.The cognitive and effective objective may be achieved by the tuitorials.
Structure: Tutorial classes are found by considering the homogenius type of difficulties of the learner.The small homogenus is assigend by one teacher.He has to give remedial help to the learner.Tutorial is a follow up programme.
Advantages.
· It is valuable teaching stratigy from individual differnces pont of view.
· Provides an opportunity to organise remedial teaching.
· Provides full freedom to the learner to seek the clarification of their problems and can raise their level of performance.
Disadvantages:
· One teacher can not solve the difficulties related to different subjects and different students.
· The teacher becomes bias and does nots take interest in the problems of each students.
· Usually some students dominate the tutorial groups and all students can get equal opportunity to participate.
· Tutorial group develop the feeling of jealous.
Suggestions:
· Tutorial group should be made of some background, abilities & entering behavours.
· Teachers should have very objective dealing with the students,
· Teacher should provide the remedial help in the subject of his own interst.
· Tutorial group should be formed on the basis of students difficulties in differtent subjects.
· Teacher shuld encouraged every students to place his difficulties.

(4) Programmed instructions:
It is a new stratigy of teaching and has revelutionized teaching and learning, also known as individualized instructions.Programmed instructions is an autocratic style of teaching strategy.The responces of the learaned or control by the programmer.The learner does not get freedom to respond, but if provides an opportunity to each learner to pace according to his own capacity and ability.
Focus: It aims to bring about desirabel change in learners behaviour.The modificaiton o the behavour is the main focus of this strategy.It has been designed to achieve the cognitive objectives.
Structure:The content is presented in two small steps.There is gap to be filled by the learner during his course of study.The response is the new knowledge of result or new behavour of the learner.The learner shuld confirm his own response by comparing it with a given correct response.The confirmaiton of his correctness of his response provides him reinformcement to go towards the next step.
How to design programmed instructions?
There are five fundamental psychological principles to design a programmed instructions.
1. Principle of small steps,
2. Principle of active rsponding
3. Principle of immediate confirmation
4. Principle of self pacing
5. Principle of students testing.
Advatages.
· Students learns by doing so remains active.
· Reinforcement is provided at each correct response
· Used as a remedial isntructions
· The students learn to this strategy without physical presence of a teacher.
· The learner makes minimnum errors in the learinign process.
Disadvantages:
· It is very difficult to develop a good programmed instructions material.
· It is very time consuming and costly process
· Can only be used to achieve cognitive objectives,
· It is a controlled instructions, hence it doesnot proved the sitaution to develop creativity of the learner.
Suggestions.
· It should be used to achieve the cognitive objective.
· It should be employed for more conceptual concept
· Should be used to remove difficulties of a learner
· It is more useful and effective for secondary schools.

(B) Permissive Style:
The permissive style of teaching strategies is based upon “ Modern theory or generalization of task and releationship centered” Permissive style seems to be less conventional. It is mainly child center, content is largely determind by the pupils.The effective objective are mainly achieved by permissive style strategies.These stratigies creat situations for students and teacher interaction and both remain active in teaching.Teaching is organized by considering students interests, ability and learning.It encourages the creativeity of learners. It includes the following strategies
(1) Question answer strategy
The socratic method is known as question anwser matheod .It is developed by the famous philosopher Socrates.He assumed that all knowledge within the learner and teacher has to unfold it. He further assumed that teacher should present the subject method in such a way that learner recognized the truth and he can idetify himself with it.

(2)Heuristics strategy
The term heuristics has been borrowed from the world “Heurises”. It means to discover or investigate. The purpose of communication is to develop the tendency of investigation. Polo and Danker (1945) have mentioned this method in their article entitled “ The Problem Solving”. The strategy involves trial and error invention techniques. This strategy is very economical and speedy. It requires more logical and imaginative thinking in formulating the number of tentative solutions for the problems.
Structure: A problem is placed before the learners and they attempt to eek the solutions of the problems. The learners get full freedom of working and thing . the number of devices are used for solving the problem. The problem is analysed in possible elements. The learners discuss themselves about the problem. The teachr encourages the students to work in laboratory and to do study in the library.
Advanteges:
· It develops the scientific attitude of learner and tendency of observation
· It involves the feelings of self confidence
· The teacher provides the individual guidance to the learner
· The teacher remains active
· It develops logical and imaginative thinking among the learner
· It is based upon psychological principles of learning
· It creates the situation for the divergent thinking
Disadvantages:
· It can not be used for lower classes
· Very time consuming strategy
· It can not be used for dull and poor students even for higher classes
· It can be employed for a large number of students

(3) Project strategy
It is a new teaching strategy and it has been evolved as a result of social tendency of education, the advocates are of this opinion that education should be related to life situation. It is experience centered teaching study. The main focus of this strategy is to socialize a child.
Objectives
It is used to achieve cognitive and effective objectives. The main focus is to socialize a child and to develop the ability of problem solving.
Structure
The teacher places the real problems related to life situations and learner realizes its utility in his life. The learner prepares a plan for solving the problems, the students several information for solving the problems. The teacher’s job is to provide guidance. The students themselves make efforts to seek solutions of the problems by studding the material.
Types of project:
1. Constructive i.e. learner has to complete a certain task.
2. Artistic i.e. developing the esthetic taste of the learner.
3. Problems centered i.e. a problems is presented before the learner and he has to seek the solution of the problem.
4. Group practice i.e. a task is assigned in which group work is required to complete.
Procedure of project strategy.
Usually 6 steps are followed in each type of project strategy.
Step One: to identify a problem related to life situation of the learner.
Step Two: to select and define the problem
Step three: to prepare a plan for finding out the solution of the problem.
Step four: to implement the plan
Step five: to evaluate the work ability of the project plan
Step Six: to prepare a record of the project

(4) Review strategy
It is more permissive style of permissive strategy. It develops the ability of critical thinking among the students. The students remain more active in this strategy and the teacher provides guidance for reviewing the books and reference books after introducing the topic to them. Every student is assigned to review and independent topic. Some time one topic is assigned to a group of students. In this strategy the students has to perform much library work and are very critical about knowledge of a topic gathered from various sources. The strategy requires self motivation and involvement in the subject matter. The students should have the patience in searching the topic from available literature and should have the feeling of cooperation to help others in this regard.
Types of review:
1. Oral review i.e. usually lecture, paper, books are reviewed orally.
2. Written review: i.e. contents, ideas and books are reviewed in written form
3. Problem review: i.e. generally this type of review is done in research studies to review the problems.
4. Simple review: i.e. in this type of review the students are asked to review a lesson, story, drama etc.
(5) Group discussion
There is no comprehensive definition of group discussion but it is considered as democratic teaching study. The pupils are more active in it. Teacher’s job is to supervise and to provide guidance to students’ activity. It is student centered teaching study. It may be of two types:
1. By the teacher i.e. this type of discussion is more autocratic style
2. By the students i.e. in this situation discussion is more permissive or democratic in style.
Structure: The group discussion organized in two forms, formally and informally. In formal group discussion, proper schedule is prepared and certain rules are observed. The group discussion is organized on any educational problem. Teacher act as the leader of the group but in the absence of a teacher students have to select a student who acts as a leader of the e group, who prepares a plan for discussion. In the group discussion, due weightage is given to the answers and questions of the students.
(6) Role playing
It is also termed as stimulated social skill, training or teaching. It is a better strategy than lesson demonstration, because it provides a situation for the learner to perform the task. It is dramatic strategy. The student-teacher has to play the role of student and teacher. The student-teacher has to teach a small lesson to his colleagues. Assuming them as secondary class students. They have to act as students. Every student has to teach a lesson in a rotation. The teaching is followed by discussion and suggestion which are given for the modification and improvement of behavior.

(7) Assignment
The assignment is also considered as one of the teaching strategies. It is most frequently used by teachers in teaching every subject that provides the situation for the assimilation of the content. It is based upon the psychological learning principles.
(8) Discovery
J.S Burner has developed this teaching strategy. The discovery and heuristics are used for the same meaning but they are quite different from one another. The discovery strategy is used for teaching social subjects whereas heuristic strategy is meant for teaching science subjects. The heuristic is used to provide the knowledge concepts where as discovery is used for the historical facts. The students are asked to prepare a brief note about a historical place which he has visited in educational excursion.
(9) Computer assisted instructions
In the beginning the computer service has been utilized in administration and industry. But computer has also influenced the educational process. It can be used effectively for imparting more information and facts to the students according to their abilities. Used to achieve cognitive objectives. The teaching process has been organized in to two steps
I) Pre-tutorial Phase II) Tutorial Phase
The main objective of pre-tutorial phase is that a particular student can achieve the objectives by using a specific type of instruction. The purpose of tutorial phase is to select appropriate instruction and to present it before the learner. It also controls the learner responses. The computer selects the suitable instruction on the basis of learners entering behavior. There may be three possibilities in selecting the instruction.
· The instruction can be selected
· More than one instruction may be selected
· No instruction can be selected and computer will reject the learner which shows
1. The learner does not possess the required entering behavior.
2. The learner possess the more than the entering behavior.
When more than one instruction is available then more time saving instruction can be used. When computer does not select any instruction it shows that the learner does not have sufficient knowledge to enter a program.

Advantages:
· Highly individualized teaching and instruction, 50 instructions of different types can be provided to fifty different students.
· Provides immediate reinforcement to learner
· Involves psychological principles of learning.
(10) Brain storming
It is completely permissive style of teaching based on assumption that student can learn better in a group rather than individual study. It’s a problem centered strategy. Used to achieve high order cognitive and effective objectives.
(11) Independent study
it is also as project work. It helps in developing student’s initiative, responsibility, and understanding for what they study. This strategy is more useful for a training program. Used to achieve high order cognitive and effective objectives. It is based on the following principles.
· Freedom of work and reading
· Self study
· Individual difference
· Involvement in the task
(12) Leaderless group
The main purpose of this strategy is to encourage students to solve problems by their own mutual participation, criticism and suggestions in the absence of teacher. It offers following advantages to the student.
· It reduces the tension of the learners
· Encourages students to solve their problems of their own.
· Criticism and appreciation provides feedback to the learner.
(13) Sensitivity training or T-Group
It is difficult to define it as a discussion method, because it employs a variety of techniques. It is also termed as T-group. It has the following objectives
· To develop the ability, how others react to one’s own behavior.
· To increase the ability to observe the state of relationship between others.
· To enhance the ability to carry out skillfully required by the situation.
Structure: There is no fixed schedule of meeting the group for discussion. Usually groups meet once a week for about three months. The role of trainer is to point out an observation what is happening inn the group? The learners have to discuss their own problems which they are facing in their actual task. The learners can discuss their own experiences about these problems.
Advantages:
1. It increases the ability to diagnose weakness of the self and others in the group
2. It offers great openness, receptivity and tolerance of difference
3. It develops operational skill in interpersonal relationship and feeling of cooperation.
4. It is considered an important strategy for social development.

4.3:Approaches of Instructional strategies
Scaffolding
It is a temporary framework used to support people and material in the construction and repair of buildings. The term scaffolding was developed as a metaphor to describe the type of assistance offered by a teacher to support learning. In the process of scaffolding, the teacher helps the students to master a task on concept that the student is enabling to grasp independently. The teacher offers assistance with only those skills that one binds the student’s capability.
When the students take responsibility to master the task, the teacher begins the process of “fading” which means gradual removal of scaffolding or assistance which allows the students who work independently.
In scaffolding the teacher can assist student by breaking the task in to smaller more manageable parts, co-operative learning using questioning, coaching, Cue cards and modeling, activating background knowledge, giving tips and strategies to reduce stress level.
Scaffolding is an instructional technique whereby the teacher models the desired learning strategy or task and then gradually shifts responsibility to the students. According to Daniels (1994) the scaffolding completes in two steps.
1. Development of Instructional Plans
2. Execution of Plans
Features of Scaffolding: Applebee and Langer has identified five features of scaffolding,
· Intentionality
· Appropriateness
· Structure (Modeling & Questioning)
· Collaboration
· Internalization (Fading)
Similarly Zhao and Orey (1999) identified six general features of Scaffolding which are,
1. Sharing a specific goal
2. Whole Task Approach
3. Immediate availability of help
4. Intention assisting
5. Optimal level of help
6. Conveying expert model

Examples of Scaffolding:
· Mother employ scaffolding to train her child
· Teacher
· Business training
· Athletic teams
Andragogical Approach
It became particularly popular in North America and Britain as a way of describing adult learning. But what actually does it mean, and how useful a term is it when thinking about adult learning? Andragogy (andr- meaning 'man') could be contrasted with pedagogy (paid- meaning 'child' and agogos meaning 'leading'). It reappeared that 'adult education required special teachers, methods and philosophy, Andragogy is premised on,
1. Self-concept: As a person matures his self-concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being a self-directed human being
2. Experience: As a person matures he accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning.
3. Readiness to learn. As a person matures his readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of his social roles.
4. Orientation to learning. As a person matures his time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application, and accordingly his orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject-centeredness to one of problem centeredness.
5. Motivation to learn: As a person matures the motivation to learn is internal.
Each of these assertions and the claims of difference between andragogy and pedagogy are the subject of considerable debate. Here I want to make some general comments
First, the conception of andragogy is an attempt to build a comprehensive theory (or model) of adult learning that is anchored in the characteristics of adult learners. Such approaches may be contrasted with those that focus on. An adult's life situation, Changes in consciousness.
Second, it makes extensive use of a model of relationships derived from humanistic clinical psychology - and, in particular, the qualities of good facilitation argued for by Carl Rogers. These encourage the learner to identify needs, set objectives, and enter learning contracts and so on.
Third, it is not clear whether this is a theory or set of assumptions about learning, or a theory or model of teaching. We can see something of this in relation to the way he has defined andragogy as the art and science of helping adults learn as against pedagogy as the art and science of teaching children.

The assumptions explored with these things in mind we can look at the assumptions that Knowles makes about adult learners:
1. Self-concept:
As a person matures his self-concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being a self-directed human being. The point at which a person becomes an adult, according to Knowles, psychologically, 'is that point at which he perceives himself to be wholly self-directing. And at that point he also experiences a deep need to be perceived by others as being self-directing'.
2. Experience:
As a person matures he accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning. The next step is the belief that adults learn more effectively through experiential techniques of education such as discussion or problem solving. Experiences are any less real or less rich than those of adults. They may not have the accumulation of so many years, but the experiences they have are no less consuming, and still have to be returned to, entertained, and made sense of.
3. Readiness to learn.
As a person matures his readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of his social roles.
4. Orientation to learning.
As a person matures his time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application, and accordingly his orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject-centeredness to one of problem centeredness.
5. Motivation to learn:
As a person matures the motivation to learn is internal. Again, Knowles does not see this as something 'natural' but as conditioned - in particular, through schooling. This assumption sits awkwardly with the view that adults' readiness to learn is 'the result of the need to perform (externally imposed) social roles and that adults have a problem-centered (utilitarian) approach to learning'. In sum it could be said that these assumptions tend to focus on age and stage of development

Pedagogy: The art or science of being a teacher. The term generally refers to strategies of instruction, or a style of instruction.
Pedagogy is also sometimes referred to as the correct use of teaching strategies, Paulo Freire referred to his method of teaching adults as "critical pedagogy". In correlation with those teaching strategies the instructor's own philosophical beliefs of teaching are harbored and governed by the pupil's background knowledge and experiences, personal situations, and environment, as well as learning goals set by the student and teacher.
Designing a learning environment that starts and structures discussions and encourages participation. As Jonassen, Peck and Wilson (1999) state: “The primary goal of education at all levels should be to engage students in meaningful learning – … defined as active, constructive, intentional, authentic and cooperative.”

Pedagogical elements
Pedagogical elements are an attempt to define structures or units of educational material. For example, this could be a lesson, an assignment, a multiple choice question, a quiz, a discussion group or a case study. These units should be format independent, so although it may be implemented in any of the following methods, pedagogical structures would not include a textbook, a web page, a video conference or an iPod video.
When beginning to create eLearning content, the pedagogical approaches need to be evaluated. Simple pedagogical approaches make it easy to create content, but lack flexibility, richness and downstream functionality. On the other hand, complex pedagogical approaches can be difficult to set up and slow to develop, though they have the potential to provide more engaging learning experiences for students. Somewhere between these extremes is an ideal pedagogy that allows a particular educator to effectively create educational materials while simultaneously providing the most engaging educational experiences for students.

Three Main Pedagogical Approaches
Instructional
This approach is the traditional, teacher and content-focused approach, described above as mainly « surface » teaching, or the two first categories mentioned by Bruner. This approach tends to see learners as rather passive receptors absorbing and regurgitating what the teacher tells them. The learners are dependent on their teacher, who selects the sources, decides pace and judges the student’s performance. Basically, the instructional approach sees “knowledge” as fairly static and objective. From the learner’s perspective this can be described as “she taught me…”. The approach is an effective tool for the teacher to set the pace, cover the syllabus and be in control. It does not usually call for deeper understanding, and encourages “performers”. However, in a complex or a supercomplex world, the instructional approach might not always be sufficient, nor the most efficient way to learn.
Constructivist
This approach argues that people have to be active learners and construct knowledge themselves. The knowledge is seen as more subjective, dynamic and expanding rather than objective and static. The main tasks here are processing and understanding of information, making sense of the surrounding world. The learner has a clear responsibility for his own learning. This approach can be summed up as “I made sense of…”. Constructivism demands participation at all levels and moves responsibility and empowerment down the hierarchy, thereby flattening it. The teacher, the “instructivist "Sage on the Stage" –will increasingly become a "Guide on the Side" in this setting.
Social Constructivist
Social constructivism means that the student joins a knowledge-generating community and in collaboration with others solve real problems as part of their study. In a social constructivist environment, the teacher will himself be a learner together with his students, as the generic skills of collaboration, problemsolving and creating new knowledge are important goals by themselves. The time and pacing will be seen as less relevant compared to instructional studies. The tasks will be processing and assessing knowledge and generating and co-constructing new knowledge.

Bearing the increasing state of super-complexity in mind, it is important to realize that students in addition to learning and understanding existing knowledge, should themselves also produce new knowledge in order to be a part of the “knowledge society”. In order to respond to these demands, new forms of teaching and learning are required that build upon the possible interconnected nature of goals, tasks, resources, roles, pacing and social structure (as shown in Figure 1. This interconnectedness can be very effectively supported by the use of ICTs (Interactive communication technologies)

It is important to highlight here, however, that there is a common misconception that e-learning is mainly about technology. However: “technology is not what learning is all about. Learning is essentially about change. Learning involves changes in attitudes, beliefs, capabilites, knowledge structures and skills”. The failure to realize the difference between technology and learning is probably the most common explanation for the many student drop-outs from on-line courses.

Instructional Technology M.Ed Chapter 05

2008-02-23T13:58:00.001-08:00

Instructional Technology Resources

5.1 Projected Aids:
A) Films or Motion Pictures
Formerly motion pictures were thought to be meaning for recreation and amusement only. Today they are increasingly used as a device of teaching. They are an indispensable means of education and instruction. A motion picture can not be more than a visual aid. It may be used in any subject such as social study where action is an important factor in giving a clear idea of the subject. In a film, the child can travel alone distances and move through centuries of time.

B) Film Strips or Film Slides
A film strip or film slide may be used as effectively as a motion picture. It consists of a series of still pictures, printed on strips of motion picture film, each of which is known as frame. Film strips come in either the single frame or the double frame. The vary in length from about a foot to three or four feet. Unlike the motion pictures, they can be stopped and held with a single picture on a screen as long as needed. They are also more useful than motion pictures in terms of cost, availability and use. Photographs, drawings, diagrams, paintings, written and printed matter are used as material for making a film strip. Colored frames may be included at a small additional cost.

C) Opaque Projector or Epidiascope
It is used to show opaque objects on the screen. That why it is also called as magic lantern. Any chart, picture, map, photograph and any printed matter can be projected without being detached from the book; there is no need of making slide of it. When opaque objects are projected, it is called episcope and when slide is projected, it is called diascope. This is the only mean to project both transparent and opaque objects.
There must be proper darkness in the room while the epidiascope is in operation so that the picture on the screen could be clearly visible. Notes and explanations by the teacher are also necessary together with projection. This equipment can easily be used for teaching any subject from any fields.

D) Overhead Projector
Among the projector aids, the over head projector is a very helpful aid for teachers. It can be used in full day light (no need to darken the room) as the projection is by means of transmitted light and not reflected light. The teacher can face the class, operate the projector by writing on the special material provided or used prepared transparencies and projected material falls behind and above him on the wall or screen for full view of the students. It is comparatively a light weight equipment which is also portable. The teacher can plan what he can present visual materials step by step with the help of overlays or prepare transparencies earlier and use them at the proper time. When a roll of transparency is used it can be continuously used by writing on it and rolling it to move and then get fresh side of the transparency to write again. The written material on the role can be erased for further use of the same transparency roll.

E) Slides Projector

Simplest form of visual aid is a slide projector. It is also known as strip projector .It is a machine which projects slides on a screen. Film strip projector is a most popular device used for projecting film strips and 2x2” slides. It is essentially a simple mechanism and it consists of a lamp of 300 Watt or 500 Watt bulb, a reflector to conserve light, and condensing lenses to concentrate all the light in to a beamed and smooth channel for threading the film. On the base of the channel is a knob which is turned y hand to pull the film strip through the projector. The knob turns the sprocket wheel whose teeth fit in to this sprocket holes on the film strips.
Every school must have one or two such projectors, and large schools must have many more. It is simple to use a slide on a small piece of film or other transparent material on which a single pictorial image or scene has been photograph. The slides should be in sequence, as per the topic discussed.

F) Multi Media
Multimedia is media that utilizes a combination of different content forms. The term can be used as a noun (a medium with multiple content forms) or as an adjective describing a medium as having multiple content forms. The term is used in contrast to media which only utilize traditional forms of printed or hand-produced text and still graphics. In general, multimedia includes a combination of text, audio, still images, animation, video, and interactivity content forms.
Multimedia is usually recorded and played, displayed or accessed by information content processing devices, such as computerized and electronic devices, but can also be part of a live performance. Multimedia (as an adjective) also describes electronic media devices used to store and experience multimedia content. Multimedia is similar to traditional mixed media in fine art, but with a broader scope. The term "rich media" is synonymous for interactive multimedia. Hypermedia can be considered one particular multimedia application.
Multimedia presentations may be viewed in person on stage, projected, transmitted, or played locally with a media player. A broadcast may be a live or recorded multimedia presentation. Broadcasts and recordings can be either analog or digital electronic media technology. Digital online multimedia may be downloaded or streamed. Streaming multimedia may be live or on-demand.
Multimedia games and simulations may be used in a physical environment with special effects, with multiple users in an online network, or locally with an offline computer, game system, or simulator.
The various formats of technological or digital multimedia may be intended to enhance the users experience, for example to make it easier and faster to convey information. Or in entertainment or art, to transcend everyday experience.
Enhanced levels of interactivity are made possible by combining multiple forms of media content. Online multimedia is increasingly becoming object-oriented and data-driven, enabling applications with collaborative end-user innovation and personalization on multiple forms of content over time. Examples of these range from multiple forms of content on web sites like photo galleries with both images (pictures) and title (text) user-updated, to simulations whose co-efficients, events, illustrations, animations or videos are modifiable, allowing the multimedia "experience" to be altered without reprogramming. In addition to seeing and hearing, Haptic technology enables virtual objects to be felt. Emerging technology involving illusions of taste and smell may also enhance the multimedia experience.
In Education, multimedia is used to produce computer-based training courses (popularly called CBTs) and reference books like encyclopedia and almanacs. A CBT lets the user go through a series of presentations, text about a particular topic, and associated illustrations in various information formats. Edutainment is an informal term used to describe combining education with entertainment, especially multimedia entertainment.

5.2Graphic-aids:
A) Cartoons
A cartoon is any of several forms of illustrations with varied meanings. The term has evolved from its original meaning from the fine art of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance, to the more modern meaning of humorous illustrations in magazines and newspapers, to the contemporary meaning referring to animated programs.

B) Charts
Charts are very useful in the teaching of all subjects and can be prepared or purchased in the market. The pictures drawn on big chart should be clear and of appropriate size.

C) Maps
Maps are generally used in teaching of history and geography. These are easily available in the market. But the teachers makes the map in the class room, it is more effective. Necessary signs and scales should be mentioned on the map and lines neatly drawn.

D) Graph
The use of graph is more frequently done in teaching of geography, history, mathematics and science. It is more useful is comparative study. For example, the wheat production of the last few years can be effectively shown with the help of graph.

E) Globes
The globe occupies an important place in teaching equipment, because it is a true representation of the earth. It can impart comprehensive and effective knowledge about the different parts of the earth, the solar and lunar eclipses the relationship between earth and the sun, the area of earth planetary movement, day night, air and hemisphere.

F) Comics
Comics are a graphic art form using words and images in order to convey a narrative. Comics can contain few or no words, and consist of one or more images, which may either illustrate or counterpoint the text to effect greater depth.

G) Diagrams
Diagrams are figures express two lines to depict the complete shape and idea about a specific thing. The teacher uses graph and diagrams to impart knowledge of science, geography etc. And it does not involve much expanses and time. The following main pints should be taken in to consideration regarding diagrams.
1. Graphs and diagram should be drawn in a manner to leave an effective impression on children.
2. In order to explain flowers and plants and different parts of the human body, diagrams are very useful.
3. It will be more effective, if along with diagrams, the real object or its pictures and films strips are shown.
4. Graphs and diagram should be simple and clear so as to be understood. There size must be reasonable, so that it is visible to all the students. Diagram should be in accordance with the subject. The teacher may use different colors to express the meaning in a better way and make the diagram attractive.

H) Flash Cards
A flashcard or flash card is a card that is used as a learning aid. One writes a question on a card and an answer overleaf. Flashcards can bear vocabulary, historical dates, formulas or any subject matter that can be learned via a question and answer format. Flashcards are widely used as a learning drill to aide memorization by way of spaced repetition.

I) Photographs
A photograph (often shortened to photo) is an image created by light falling on a light-sensitive surface, usually photographic film or an electronic imager such as a CCD or a CMOS chip. Most photographs are created using a camera, which uses a lens to focus the scene's visible wavelengths of light into a reproduction of what the human eye would see. The process of creating photographs is called photography.
Types of photographs:
Non-digital photographs are produced with a two-step chemical process. In the two-step process the light-sensitive film captures a negative image (colors and lights/darks are inverted). To produce a positive image, the negative is most commonly transferred ('printed') onto photographic paper. Printing the negative onto transparent film stock is used to manufacture motion picture films.
Alternatively, the film is processed to invert the negative image, yielding positive transparencies. Such positive images are usually mounted in frames, called slides. Before recent advances in digital photography, transparencies were widely used by professionals due to their sharpness and accuracy of color rendition. Most photographs published in magazines were taken on color transparency film.
Originally all photographs were monochromatic, or hand-painted in color. Although methods for developing color photos were available as early as 1861, they did not become widely available until the 1940s or 50s, and even so, until the 1960s most photographs were taken in black and white. Since then, color photography has dominated popular photography, although black and white is still used, being easier to develop than color.

J) Pictures
When real objects or model are not available, pictures can be used as visual aids. All types of knowledge can not be imparted through pictures and their importance as a form of effective visual aids can not be denied. Pictures should be clear, lucid, and of appropriate size. Colored pictures attract more attention especially of younger children. A picture should be so presented that it is visible to all pupils of the class and should of course be suitable to the subject matter.

K) Posters
Posters have an important place among the equipment used in the education process. Posters are the pictures of individuals, places, events and things but their expressions are not direct and very clear. They have there own special indirect and symbolic value. While ordinary pictures furnish much information about a subject matter, posters are forceful expression of ideas. They are centered round a particular idea which is used to communicate particular feelings. A poster is also used as a means to appeal to students in its own unique way. It leans an impression on the reader. That is why it is widely used as means of advertisement and publicity. Posters create a suitable atmosphere for change or to build up certain thinking, ideology and to inspire for doing a certain job. It can modify the behavior of not only an individual, but also an entire group. It can be helpful in advancing plans for a movement and to divert and entire group towards a desired direction.
Poster can leave a permanent impression on students regarding personal hygiene, cleaning of teeth, hairs, eyes and clothe dangers of eating dirty eatables, importance of cleanliness and other good habits. Posters can be prepared with the help pf magazines, cuttings, and pictures. Posters can be prepared on paper, wood, cloth and plywood in different colures and sizes.

5.3 Display Boards:
Display board is a generic term for a board-shaped material that is rigid and strong enough to stand on its own, and generally used for displaying paper or other materials affixed to it.
A) Black Board/Chalk Board
Chalk board is used for the following:
For presenting summary
For making any name of work clear and to accord its importance,
For writing the sketch of a certain plan.
For presenting graphs, diagrams and examples.
For clarifying sequence of any operation or thing
For giving certain instructions
For writing rules and definitions
For writing information, knowledge of data and tables.
It is one of the ancient means of imparting education. Teachers have started using chalk board in place of black boards in different method of teaching. These boards can be green, yellow or any other color instead of being black. Social study and science teachers have now started feeling that chalk boards are very useful for them. They can be used in different directions and for different purposed. They can be use to draw format of subject matter, accounting for the work in progress, common drawing figures, developing programs and writing summaries .The black board is place near the teacher and it can also play better roll if properly used by him. It needs to be mentioned here that this quality is re2quired in most of the teachers, weather he or she has been teaching social studies, language, mathematics, science or any other subject.

B) White Boards
A whiteboard (also known as a dry-erase, dry-wipe board or a pen-board) is a name for any glossy surface, most commonly coloured white, where non-permanent markings can be made. Whiteboards operate analogously to chalkboards in that they allow markings to temporarily adhere to the surface of the board. The popularity of whiteboards increased rapidly in the mid-1990s and they have become a fixture in many offices, meeting rooms, school classrooms, and other work environments
Advantages: Whiteboard ink markings are less susceptible to external factors, such as water or accidental erasure, because the ink adheres slightly better than chalk does to chalkboards. Using markers does not generate the dust that comes from using and erasing chalk, allowing their use in areas containing dust-sensitive equipment. Some who are allergic to chalk or are asthmatic use whiteboards as an alternative.
A whiteboard can be used as the projecting medium for an overhead or video projector. This allows the person giving the presentation to fill in blanks, edit, underline and make comments by writing directly onto the whiteboard, which in turn shows through the projected image.
Disadvantages: Whiteboards are slightly more expensive than blackboards. In addition, only special whiteboard markers are suitable for use on whiteboards. Using other markers that resemble whiteboard markers but contain the wrong kind of ink creates markings that are hard or impossible to remove. However, some techniques have been developed, which include filling over them using a marker with the right type of removable ink and then erasing the ink; wiping the marks with acetone or alcohol; or by using board cleaning sprays or prepackaged wipes commercially available from the whiteboard manufacturers.
The white background can cause contrast problems for people with vision impairment. Some people are sensitive or allergic to the strong odour of most whiteboard markers. Reduced-odour markers are available. Whiteboard markers may create a more persistent mess than chalk, as the ink is difficult to remove from anything other than the surface of the board; dry-erase ink causes stains in clothing.Whiteboard markers use much more petroleum in their creation than chalk, which is formed from a naturally occurring mineral.

C) Bulletin Board or Tack board or Display area
Bulletin boards are used for displaying the statements of learned persons, charts, graphs and other necessary pieces of information, so that the students may be inspired and motivated for learning. The matter displayed on the bulletin board should be arranged in sequence and should be in accordance with the age and mental ability of the viewers. Board should be placed at a place where it can be easily seen and read by the students. The boards should be well maintained and attractive. Students should also be provided the opportunity to display matters on them.
The matters displayed on the bulletin board must be attractive, meaningful interesting and appropriate to this situation. They may include pictures, cartoon, advertisement, graphs, maps, charts, figures, news and writings from magazines and periodicals. The matters to be displayed must be selected by the committee.

D) Flannel Boards or Feltboards or flockboard
Flannel board should be sufficiently used in the teaching of social studies and social sciences. These boards are to a great extent similar to black boards. They have a specific opportunity to change colors and speed and adjust to changes. This is why flannel boards are interesting.
Colored lime series relating to particular period or movement can be prepared and displayed in sequence in a useful way.
While teaching a particular units or regional extension, a big map may be cut in to useful pieces and shown on the flannel board after adding the extended regions.
Pictures, photos, charts and graphs may be cut from news papers and magazines and displayed on the flannel board, while teaching the economic social and political aspects of any country.
Charts of cities, provinces or governments may be prepared and displayed on the flannel boards and the constituents of these government may be explain
The use of flannel board may proof to be useful for all types of students. It is especially useful for slow learners because its major familiarizes them with ideas, places, persons, and new descriptions.
E) Magnetic Board
These boards are used magnetic white boards for scheduling, planning, project control, calendars and applications with respect to teaching and learning situations.
F) Electronic Board
Electric devices for purposes of drill are easily made by teachers or students, these devices are usually powered by dry cell. Batteries are also constructed that when an electric circuit is completed by properly matching ends of wires, a signal is activated; it may be a buzzer or a small electric bulb. The commonest usage of electric drill devices has been in geography, arithmetic fundamentals, grammar, and rules of conduct. These boards are used for

-Change or add adjectives
-Circle elements to check authenticity of a website
-Explore editing and proofreading marks
-Highlight words in sentences and paragraphs - use e-books!
-Identify the fact or opinion in an article
-Match words
-Use highlighter tool to highlight parts of speech (i.e., nouns, verbs, adjectives)
-Practice words. Move the icon to see the answer.
-Use a story starter, write a class story, chain story, or peer story
-Put key words in middle and write two points of view
-Scramble words and make sentences
-Share autobiographies
-Write a daily journal, news article, or newsletter with key information from news websites
-Write sentences based on photographs
-On e-grid paper, plot the relationship between two characters (i.e., calm/stressed, happy/sad) through the book
-Use photo of a person (i.e., character from book, person from history). Ask students to write in “bubble” about their thoughts.

G) Peg Board.
Peg boards are a comparatively new and ingenious device for displaying many things, especially objects and specimens. The peg board is a piece of soft composition board punched with small holes about an inch apart. Pegs (wood, metal or plastic) inserted in the holes serves as supports for books, pamphlets and small objects. The combination is endless. Peg board can be painted and attached to walls.5.4 3-Dimensional Aids: A) Diagrams
A diagram is a drawing which makes use of lines and conventionalized geometrical symbols, but uses no pictorial elements, a diagram portrayers the structure of its subject, which may be an idea, a society, a sentence, and so on. Because diagrams are highly condensed, they are usually quite abstract or symbolical. For example, a cross section of a leaf, showing the various layers of tissues and cells, is obviously difficult to understand unless the reader already posses a background for the interpretation.
Diagrams may be constructed by the teacher or gathered from such sources as news papers, magazines, and books. Teacher constructed diagrams and sketches may be prepared in advance on chart, cloth or large sheets of paper, or they may be constructed during class periods on the chalk boards.

B) Models
A model is a pattern, plan, representation (especially in miniature), or description designed to show the main object or workings of an object, system, or concept. Model may also refer to as “representations of objects”
· Model (physical), a physical representation of an object
· Solid modeling, study of unambiguous representations of the solid parts of an object
· Scale model, a replica or prototype of an object
· Model building, a hobby centered around construction of material replicas
· 3D model, a 3D polygonal representation of an object, usually displayed with a computer

C) Mockups
A mockup is an extensive demo of a recording project built using samplers to stand in for acoustic instruments.These extensive demos are frequently used in projects requiring large budgets to record, such as film scores. A mockup allows the director, or executive producer, to hear the compositions in a setting that approximates their final version, and thus to approve or alter the project before the budget has been committed to record the actual instruments.
Mockups first came into wide use in the 1980s, when synthesizer and sampler technology developed to the point where it could create approximate replicas of acoustic instruments. Large film-scoring studios would build systems with dozens of sound modules, all linked to a single sequencer that would play back the version of the score. With the development of faster computers, and better software environments for sampling and editing, most mockups today are done with software synthesizers.

D) Real Objects
All teachers sometimes or another make use of objects and specimens in the classrooms. Objects are, of course, such things as flowers, animals, transmitters, stones and garments. Students often bring to class curious or souvenirs that their fathers or brothers have acquired in military service, teachers sometimes use such relics as old newspapers, tools, maps, or weapons to illustrate history lessons, and these curious, souvenirs, and relics, of course, objects. The distinction between object and specimen is slight and not particularly important.

E) Puppets
A puppet is a representational figure manipulated by a puppeteer. It is usually but not always a depiction of a human character and is used in a play or a presentation. The puppet undergoes a process of transformation through being animated, and is normally manipulated by one, or sometimes more than one, puppeteer. Some puppets can be moved electronically.
Puppets are made of a wide range of materials, depending on the effect required and the amount of usage intended, and can be extremely complex or very simple in their construction. There are many different varieties of puppets
Puppeteer Anita Sinclair states, "Through puppetry we accept the outrageous, the absurd or even the impossible, and will permit puppets to say and do things no human could. We allow a puppet to talk to us when no one else can get us to speak. We allow a puppet to smile at us even when we have not been introduced. We also allow a puppet to touch us when a person would lose an arm for the same offence."
F) Specimens
A specimen may be a part of an object-the head or shaft of an arrow, the beater of an electric mixer, the wing of a butterfly, for example. And a specimen may also be one of a group or class taken to represent the whole group. In other words, a typical example.

5.5 Audio Visual Aids:

A)Radio
Radio is the transmission of signals, by modulation of electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of visible light. Electromagnetic radiation travels by means of oscillating electromagnetic fields that pass through the air and the vacuum of space. Early speculation that this required a medium of transport, called luminiferous aether, were found to be false. Information is carried by systematically changing (modulating) some property of the radiated waves, such as their amplitude or their frequency. When radio waves pass an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. This can be detected and transformed into sound or other signals that carry information.
Today, radio takes many forms, including wireless networks and mobile communications of all types, as well as radio broadcasting. Before the advent of television, commercial radio broadcasts included not only news and music, but dramas, comedies, variety shows, and many other forms of entertainment. Radio was unique among methods of dramatic presentation in that it used only sound. For more, see radio programming.

B) Recording
If some piece or selection is not needed after a particular time, it may be erased and the tape may be used for recording some other speech or sound. Tape recorder proves especially effective in developing worth while standards of correct speech by providing opportunities to the pupils who listen to their own speeches and compare them to the speeches of respective and well-known personalities.
There are four main types of recording devices.
Record disc player, which is a sort of talking machine which produces sound records on a disc in the form of songs, fairy tales, stories, lessons etc.
A tape recorder is an instrument to record speeches, sounds or music, which may be played back at any time and any number of times.
Video tape recorder (VTR)
Computer mediated video which uses video optical disc as recording disc

C) Television
In some foreign countries like U.S.A and England the use of television has made rapid strides on the path of progress. Its spare of influence has extended to the field of education. In India, however, it has not yet come in the educational field. However, a beginning in this direction has been, made in new Delhi with great potentialities.
One research study in U.S.A showed that school pupils, who had television sets in their homes, spent more than twenty three hours every week on television viewing equivalent to visiting pictures every evening. This shows the value of T.V as a medium of mass communication and mass education.

Instructional Television (ITV)
It is an effective distance education delivery system that can be integrated in to the curriculum at three basic levels,
Single Lesson: Programmed address, one specific topic or concept, providing a; lesson introduction, overview, or summary.
Selected unit: A series of programs providing the content foundation for a learning unit in the course curriculum,
Full course: Programs from one or more ITV series may be integrated in to a full semester course typically in conjunction with instructional print materials.

5.6 Activity Aids:A) Demonstrations
Demonstration may refer to:
1.Demonstration (proof), conclusive mathematical proof
2.Scientific demonstration, a scientific experiment carried out for the purposes of illustrating principles, rather than for hypothesis testing or knowledge gathering
3.Demonstration (teaching), a method of teaching by example rather than simple explanation
4.Technology demo, a prototype version of a technology product, to showcase its forthcoming ideas, performance, method or features; more commonly called a demo
5.Demoware, software that users can test in a limited fashion before buying for example: Game demo, more narrowly; a freely-distributed "try-out" version of a video game, usually fully playable but incomplete

Demonstration is one way to define certain kinds of words. Demonstration is the simple act of pointing to an object, area, or place, like the sun, moon, or a large mountain top, and then naming and defining it. Basic definitions of words through demonstration, or pointing, allows humans to communicate, interact, plan, and co-ordinate in ways that help us to build cities, large buildings, technology, gain knowledge and to successfully communicate with computers. Basic propositions about time, space, and mathematics are first required to teach about true and probable statements or words that accurately describe universal qualities and quantities about nature, planets, species, and the world around us.

B) Experimentation
In the scientific method, an experiment is a set of observations performed in the context of solving a particular problem or question, to retain or falsify a hypothesis or research concerning phenomena. The experiment is a cornerstone in the empirical approach to acquiring deeper knowledge about the physical world.
The design of experiments attempts to balance the requirements and limitations of the field of science in which one works so that the experiment can provide the best conclusion about the hypothesis being tested. In some sciences, such as physics and chemistry, it is relatively easy to meet the requirements that all measurements be made objectively, and that all conditions can be kept controlled across experimental trials. On the other hand, in other cases such as biology, and medicine, it is often hard to ensure that the conditions of an experiment are performed consistently; and in the social sciences, it may even be difficult to determine a method for measuring the outcomes of an experiment in an objective manner.
For this reason, sciences such as physics and several other fields of natural science are sometimes informally referred to as "hard sciences", while social sciences are sometimes informally referred to as "soft sciences"; in an attempt to capture the idea that objective measurements are often far easier in the former, and far more difficult in the latter.

C) Field Trips
A field trip is a journey by a group of people to a place away from their normal environment.
The purpose of the trip is usually observation for education, non-experimental research or to provide students with experiences outside their everyday activities. The aim of this research is to observe the subject in its natural state and possibly collect samples. In western culture people first come across this method during school years when classes are taken on excursions to visit a geological or geographical feature of the landscape, for example. Much of the early research into the natural sciences was of this form. Charles Darwin is an important example of someone who has contributed to science through the use of field trips.
Field trips are extracurricular educational field studies a class makes. These are normally one day long, but they can be longer. Such excursions usually consist of visits to local landmarks and educational institutions, like zoos, parks, museums, and play facilities.
The term is most often used in an educational sense, classes are taken on a residential biology field trip or a geography field trip, most often where the experiences delivered by the field trip cannot be undertaken in the class room. However, the term is also sometimes used by non-educational entities to refer to off-site research studies and/or leisure activities.
Residential field trips are popular with some teachers because the experience of staying away from home provides an environment where children can grow in self confidence and awareness of the needs of others.
There is a controversy as to whether or not it is appropriate to do field trips. Some people believe they are unnecessary because the liability increases when students are taken off school property, requiring extra insurance.
To mitigate these risks and expenses, most school systems now have formalized field trip procedures that considers the entire trip from estimation, approval and scheduling through planning the actual trip and post-trip activities.

D) Programmed Instruction
Programmed instruction is a teaching technique that provides learners with “small, discrete increments of instruction plus immediate reinforcement for correct responses”.
It consists of self-teaching with the aid of a textbook or teaching machine that presents material structured in a logical sequence. Programmed instruction allows students to answer questions about a unit of study at their own rate, checking their own answers and advancing only after answering correctly. After each step, they are presented with a question to test their comprehension, then are immediately shown the correct answer or given additional information.
Associated terms :
Some professional educators recognize a distinction between programmed instruction and programmed learning, where programmed instruction is defined as instruction intended to modify behavior and programmed learning is defined as insturction intended for use in teaching facts and skills (Programmed instruction). However, most of the educational research reviewed for this posting did not make this distinction.
Today, programmed instructional curricula are generally created for (and taught with) personal computers. A single program may consist of thousands of small units of instuction (also known as frames of instruciton). However, a large variety of teaching machines have been invented to facilitate the process of programmed instruction. Programmed instruction has also been written for and presented in various hard text formats. However, the use of computer technology is generally preferred.
Types:
Programmed instruction can be designed to present information to learners in either a linear or a branched (also called intrinsic) fashion. Linear programs allow students to advance through the instructional process in a particular order as they provide correct answers. Students are provided with specific pieces of information in a series of frames and asked to recall or apply this information during frequent tests of comprehension. In linear programs all students complete the same sequence of frames. If a student provides a correct response they move to the next frame. Linear programs make no accommodation for errors by the student because it is assumed that a student will provide correct responses for nearly every question. Branched programs offer students a variety of paths through a curriculum. For example, if a student misses a multiple choice question they could be directed to previous frame or to whatever information is most appropriate based on their response to the question. What is most important in the execution of both linear and branched programming approaches is that they provide immediate feedback to learners based on their response. According to Leshin, programmed instruction is most effective when applied using the branching and interactive capabilities of computers.
Application in classrooms and similar settings:
Programmed instruction has many applications both in the classroom setting and in other settings where the efficient acquisition of behaviors, facts, and skills is a primary concern. For example, programmed instruction is often used to train personnel in industry and the armed services.
Teachers play a vital role in effective programmed instruction and should be active in every part of the programming process. Not only should the teacher monitor student progress on programmed materials, but also assess the effectiveness of all programs, provide individualized tutoring, and motivate students to participate in programmed activities.
According to Chen, programmed instruction is desirable in many instructional settings because it provides the following benefits:
Immediate knowledge of results: Students continuously answer questions and receive feedback to ensure comprehension.
Individualized learning: Students can complete programmed instructional activities at their own pace without feeling held back or pushed by other classmates.
Expert instruction: Students are required to complete a logical sequence of instruction that has been designed by experts.
Eshleman identified other positive characteristics of programmed instruction which include:
Emphasis on student behavior- Programmed instruction focuses educators attention on their students’ behavior and views instruction as a task of shaping student behavior.
Scientific basis for instruction- Programmed instruction is based on the scientific work of behaviorists. It can draw on science as a resource. Teachers can predict (to a certain degree) their students’ performance with appropriately applied programmed instructional materials.
Increased focus on design and development of instructional materials- Programmed instruction is based on an organized process of creating and implementing instructional materials in which learning objectives are set, instructional materials are responsibly prepared and modified, and student performance is easily monitored.
Stimulus Control- Programmed instruction prompts information from students under regular and appropriate circumstances.
PLATO and ALEKS are two examples of current instructional resources that are based (broadly) on the idea of programmed instruction. In both programs students complete a predetermined set of curricula. However, PLATO utilizes a linear instructional sequence and ALEKS utilizes a branched instructional sequence. Both programs have a long history of success and both have been proven to be (generally) effective strategies for improving student performance.

Instructional Technology M.Ed Chapter 06

2008-02-23T13:57:00.000-08:00

Integrating computer Technology in the Classroom Teaching and Assessment

6.1 A) Communications
The term communication has been derived from the Latin word “Communis” meaning common. It implies common experiences, mutual sharing or give and take. It gives different meanings to different people. Communication is defined as the sharing of ideas and feelings in a mode of mutuality. It involves interaction which encourages give and take. This provides feedback to the individuals involved in the exchange of ideas. Effective communication, therefore is a two way process.

Components of communication:
There are four components of communication, they are
1.Source or Sender or encoder
2.Message or Signal
3.Channel or Medium
4.Destination or receivers or decoder

In the communication process, the source or the sender has the correct information and transmits the same as accurately, clearly and speedily as possible. The content of transmission is called the message. It should be conveyed through the medium of words both written and verbal, gestures, pictures, and so on. Thus the medium or channel may be either audio or visual or both.
The sender encodes the ideas or information as the message and channelizes the same up to the receiver through medium or media. The receiver decodes or understands the message or interprets the information according to his background. Since communication involves at least two or more persons, interaction is a must in order to make it effective. This ensures the mutual sharing or give and take of ideas and experiences. Such communication must also have a desired reaction called feedback. Thus in any effective communication, in addition to the original four components, two more
i) Interaction and
ii) Feedback is also essential.

Modes of Communication:
There are mainly three modes of communication. They are
1. Speaking –Listening mode
2. Visualizing-Observing
3. Writing-Reading

(Note: For further detail about communication see chapter no.1)

Data Communication or Transmission:
Digital data transmission i.e. the digital signals are in the form of electrical impulses. Digital signals are faster and efficient and provide low error rates and high transmission speed.
Analog data transmission i.e. these signal are in the form of wave. The wave is known as carrier wave having specific frequency and amplitude.

Types of DATA transmission
1.Asynchronous data transmission (Character by character)
2.Synchronous data transmission (Block by Block containing characters)

Software for communication
Different types of communication software are as follows.
Email: It stands for electronic mail. It is exchange of text, messages and files through internet. Message can be in the form of graphics, sounds, video clips or simple text. It is a fast way of delivering messages any where in the world in the very short time.
FTP: it stands for file transfer protocol. It is used on internet for sending files from one place to another. It is especially designed for professionals.
News groups: It is a global electronic bulletin board system. People exchange information on a vast range of topics such as news, recorrection, business, science an computer. News group may require news reader software. It is integrated in some operating systems, web browsers and email program. It can also be downloading from the internet.
Chatting & Instant Messaging: Chat programs allow users on the internet to communicate with one another by typing messages. They are some times included as a feature of a website, where users can log in to the chartroom to exchange comments and information.
Web Browser: A browser is software that acts as an interface between the user and the internet. It has the capability to understand HTML. It can display text and graphics. Browsers are also known as web links or universal clients.
Internet Telephony: Used to talk to other people over the internet. It is also called voiceover IP. It uses the internet to connect a calling party and one or more called parties using internet telephone software. When the user speaks, internet telephone software and sound card digitize and compress the spoken words and transmit it over the internet to the called parties.
Videoconferencing: it uses video and computer technology to conduct a meeting between participants and two or more geographically separate locations. It is used for technical support, job interviews, distance learning etc. it requires computer with microphones, speakers, video cameras and communication devices and software.
Groupware: people working on a project share their information on a network.
Global positioning system (GPS): it consists of one or more earth-based receivers that receive and analyze signals sent by satellites to determine the receiver’s geographic position. It is handheld device and can be mounted on an automobile, boat, aero plane or computer. Some GPS displays the location on map using screen.

B) Networks
A computer network is a set of two or more computers connected together through cables, satellite or telephone lines in order to share information and other resources. For example, Internet is an example of a computer network in which millions of computers are connected through phone lines. People use these networks to share information, files and talk with one another.
Advantages of networks:
1.Information and resource sharing
2.Money saving
3.Easy communication
4.Internet access sharing
5.Data security and management
6.Entertainment

Disadvantages of networks:
1.Setting up a network requires an investment in hardware, software, planning, designing and implementing the network.
2.Hardware and Software management cost
3.Undesirable sharing of data
4.Illegal or undesirable behavior (Damaging private policies)
5.Data security concerns

Types of networks:
Computer networks are categorized according to

1.How they are organized physically
2.The way they are used
3.Distance over which they operate

Three main types of computer networks are as follows,
1.LAN (Local Area Network) used for a small area
2.WAN(Wide area network) used to connect countries and continents
3.MAN(Metropolitan Area Network) that covers a particular geographical area, may contain many LAN (Local Area Network)

C) Internet
The internet is a collection of millions of computers around the world that are all connectd to one another. It is a global network of computers. These computers are connected through different telecommunications links like,
-Phone lines
-Fiber Optics lines
-Satellites and wireless connections
The internet is used to find information stored on the computers called HOSTS or SERVERS that are part of the Internet. These computers use a common protocol TCP/IP (Transmission control protocol/Internet protocol) for communication. Each computer connected to the internet can act as host. A host computer provides information to people.
More than one half billion users in the world use the internet for different purposes. Some uses of the internet are as follows,
1. To access information, news, research, educational material.
2. To conduct business
3. To access sources of entertainment such as online games, magazines etc.
4. To shop for goods and services.
5. To meet and talk with people around the world in discussion groups or chat rooms
6. To access other computers and exchange files.
7. To sent messages and receive messages from connected users

D) World Wide Web (WWW)
It is also called WEB. It was launched in 1989 at the European Particle Physics Laboratory in Geneva. It provides the facility to publish information on the internet. It is a collection of documents or web pages stored on computers connected with internet around the world. A web page is a document that is written in HTML. The www uses hypertext transfer protocol (http) to link different web pages. Web pages are also called as hypertext documents. A web page may contain simple text, images and hyperlinks. Anyone can view web pages through a web-browser.
A collection of related web pages is called website. Each website has a unique address. The computer which store the websites are called web server. The process of launching a web page is called publishing the page.

Uses of www
1.Advertisement
2.Shopping
3.Flight information
4.T.V stations
5.Celebrities, sportsman and film actors
6.Access to Govt. authorities
7.News
8.Encyclopedia publisher
9.Search engines
10.Medical and Engineering

6.2 Educational Software applications
What is software?
Software can be defined as a set of instruction that tells the computer to perform some task. But software is not simply the program. A software system actually consists of the following things,
1.Various programs 2.Configuration files used to setup these programs
3.System documentation that describes the structure of a system
4.User documentation that explains how to use the system
5.Websites for users to download recent product information

Types of software:
Generic product : Designed for public or open market
Customized product: Designed for a specific customer

Characteristics of software:
Maintainability: Software must be designed in such a way that it can be changed and evolved latter according to requirements of the user.
Dependability: It means how much software is reliable, secure and safe.
Efficiency: It means it should not damage the memory of the processor.
Usability: software must be easy to use. Also provide proper user interface and documentation.

Educational Software:
It is used in education to learn different skills. Many software packages are available on different subjects. Students and common people can learn foreign languages and use of application software (that perform specific tasks for the user e.g. MS-Word, Excel etc) through educational software. It can also be used to educate basic skills of math, reading and writing to the students of preliminary classes.
Many educational software use Computer Based Training (CBT) approach. CBT is a type of education in which students learn through exercises with instructional software. This approach is used in different fields to teach different skills.

Objectives of Educational software
To impart relevant knowledge
To inform
To entertain
To teach skills
To present concepts
To generate curiosity and interest
To stimulate creative and imaginative ideas
To develop problem solving ability
To bring about change in behavior and attitudes

6.3 Computer Assisted distance Education
Computer applications for distance education fall in to four broad categories:
1. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI): uses the computer as a self contained teaching machine to present discrete lessons to achieve specific but limited educational objectives. There are several CIA modes, including: drill and practice, tutorial, simulations and games and problem solving.
2. Computer managed instruction (CMI): uses the computer’s branching, storage and retrieval capabilities to organize instruction and track student’s records and progress. The instruction need not be delivered via computer, although often CAI (The Instruction component) is combined with CMI.
3. Computer Mediated Communication (CMC): Describes computer applications that facilitate communication. Examples include electronic mail, computer conferencing, and electronic bulletin boards.
4. Computer Based Multimedia: Its goal is to integrate various voice, video and computer technologies in to a single, easily accessible delivery system.

Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI):
It has better flexibility and more versatility than any of the teaching machines. It can cater to the individual needs of many students and at a time and record all the responses of all the pupils with reliability. The time taken by individual student in responding to a question and extent of correctness in the same are also recorded by the computer. All this helps the educator in planning instruction and providing relevant materials.
The CAI can deal the problems of quality in education more effectively and more flexible kind of branching is possible on the part of the computer according to the student’s performance. A learner can be progress at once pace, perceive and choose the material, sequencing and level of instruction freely. Since each learner’s performance is automatically recorded and can be fed back to the teacher, learner’s performance can be evaluated and education be provided accordingly to the strategy that is best suited to the individual.

The CIA installation usually consists of individual learning booths each with a console. Every student sits in front of the console with a television screen displaying information etc. a complete learning package suiting to his individual needs is presented, sequentially. This package may consist of video as well as a audio tape recordings, films, slides, film strips and so on. The students may make queries to the computer by means of a type writer, key board and get answers in printed forms. The students may write the answers directly on the cathode ray tube screen with a “light pen” which can be evaluated by the computer. On completion of a program, the computer records his progress and prints out a report for the teacher.
Advantages and Limitations:
Although CAI is developed on the principals of programmed learning, it also utilizes the concepts of audio-visual education, communication theory, system analysis, data processing and learning theory. CAI produces learning experience effectively and efficiently. Good amount information stored in the computer is made available to the learner more readily than by any other media. The interaction between the students and instructional program is made more dynamic and more individualized in CAI than in any other system.
CAI is, however, extremely expensive. It is also mostly mechanical and deprived of human touch. Therefore, it is criticized on the ground that this innovation will dehumanize the educational system and the teaching learning process will be lifeless and mechanized.
Educational technologists therefore, suggests system approach, representing and integrated, sequential and multimedia learning package. The system’s approach should also consist of a relevant media, material and methods. It will not replace the teacher, but will relieve him of drudgery.
A creative and committed teacher is more in demand then anything else when computer is available in education.

Instructional Technology-Teaching Strategies

2008-02-23T13:52:00.000-08:00

Lesson Plan. How to Design?

2008-02-18T23:38:00.002-08:00

Lesson Plan Title

Course Time: 150 min.
03/24/00

1) Learner Outcome: This is not read to the learners. Instead, use the Objective and Course Requirements below. This is to help the developer build the lesson plan.

a) Task: Starting with a verb, describe the observable performance or behavior.
b) Condition: Describe the actual conditions under which the task will occur or be observed.
c) Standard: State the level of acceptable performance of the task in terms of quantity, quality, time limitations, etc.
Time: 5 min

2) Introduction: Introduce yourself - name, authority (why should the learners listen to you), interest device (war story, humor). Special instructions, facilities, etc.
Time: 3 min

3) Objective: Help them to visualize a clear goal, such as what will this learning help me to achieve? What will I be able to do in the future? Why am I spending my time in this class?
Time: 2 min

4) Course Requirements: What must I do to pass this course? How do I know I can perform the task correctly?
Time: 5 min

5) Course Description: Give the big picture (Global). The instructional outline will list the details (Liner). Some people prefer large-scale concepts (over-all view of the material). Others prefer one-step at a time instructions.
a) Stimulate recall of prior learning: Show how this lesson is built upon prior lessons or pre-course requirements.

6) Instructional Outline
Time: 25 min
a) First learning Point: For effective learning, use the full range of Howard Gardner's work on Multiple intelligences.
i) Linguistic-verbal learners tend to think best via words (word smart). Use activities that involve hearing, listening, impromptu or formal speaking, tongue twisters, humor, oral or silent reading, documentation, creative writing, spelling, journal, poetry.
ii) Logical-mathematical learners are questioners who think best by reasoning (number or logic smart). Use activities that involve abstract symbols/formulas, outlining, graphic organizers, numeric sequences, calculation, deciphering codes, problem solving.
iii) Visual-spatial learners employ images and pictures (form mental models of the world). Use activities that involve art, pictures, sculpture, drawings, doodling, mind mapping, patterns/designs, color schemes, active imagination, imagery, block building.
iv) Bodily-Kinesthetic learners use somatic sensations (body smart). Use activities that involve role playing, physical gestures, drama, inventing, ball passing, sports games, physical exercise, body language, dancing.
v) Musical-rhythmic learners tend to think via melodies and rhythm. Use activities that involve audio tape, music recitals, singing on key, whistling, humming, environmental sounds, percussion vibrations, rhythmic patterns, music composition, tonal patterns.
vi) Interpersonal learners think by bouncing ideas off of each other (socializers who are people smart). Use activities that involve group projects, division of labor, sensing others' motives, receiving/giving feedback, collaboration skills.
vii) Intrapersonal learners think deeply inside of themselves. Use activities that involve emotional processing, silent reflection methods, thinking strategies, concentration skills, higher order reasoning, "centering" practices, meta-cognitive techniques.
viii) Naturalist learners are connected to the intricacies and subtleties in nature. Use activities that involve bringing the outdoors into the class, relating to the natural world, charting, mapping changes, observing wildlife, keeping journals or logs.
Time: 15 min
b) Second Learning Point: Normally, each learning point will last about 15 or 30 minutes (lectures only will run 5 to 10 minutes), depending upon the complexity of the subject and the type of activities performed.
i) Use teaching aids for long term memory, such as mnemonics, visualizations, mind maps, or activities - get the learners involved!
ii) Invoke positive emotions such as excitement, wonder, or challenge. Ask about concerns and then relate them to past or future achievements. Help them to visualize goals and encourage positive actions.
iii) Use all sensory channels - Visual, Auditory, & Kinesthetic (VAK). Using all three will reinforce the learning concepts.
Time: 20 min
c) Third Learning Point: David Kolb found that the four combinations of perceiving and processing determine the four learning styles. We use all four, but we favor one style. According to Kolb, the learning cycle involves:
i) Converger – Abstract Conceptualization + active experimentation - lecture, papers, analogies, how does this relate to that, case studies, theory readings, thinking alone.
ii) Diverger – Concrete Experience + reflective observation - laboratories, field work, observations, how can I apply this in practice, peer feedback.
iii) Accommodator - Concrete experience + Active Experimentation - simulations, case study, small group discussions, peer feedback.
iv) Assimilator – Reflective Observation + Abstract conceptualizatio - logs, journals, brainstorming, time to think about this.
Time: 15 min
d) Forth Learning Point: Normally, there should be about 4 learning points for each hour or two of instruction depending upon difficultly...the learners need time to “absorb” the information.
Time: 30 min

7) Elicit performance (practice) and provide feedback:
a) Avid Beginners - The learners are enthusiastic to learn a new skill and may be somewhat apprehensive because they are about to enter a change process. They need clear instructions and lots of feedback because the task is new, and a little support.
b) Disillusioned Beginners - The level of technical support becomes less so that they may experiment with their learning style that works best. They have reached failure a few times which means emotional support must increase to help with their confidence.
c) Reluctant Learners – They have become capable in performing their new skill. The amount of guidance drops to a few pointers so that they can experiment. They are still not confident so emotional support stays high to help build confidence.
d) Task Performers - Little direction and little support are required. They begin to take ownership of their new tasks and responsibilities.
Time: 10 min
e) Review: After about 1 or 2 hours of class, depending upon the complexity of the material, perform reflection or review activities.
i) Reflection is an active process (the doer must think) - do it in pairs, groups and individually.
ii) Reviews can also be an activity, i.e. toss a nerf ball around, the receiver of the ball then explains or lists what he or she thought was a major ideal or concept. The ball is then tossed to another...
Time: 20 min

8) Evaluation: Know what behaviors are to be looked for and how they are rated. These behaviors MUST support the learner oucomes (learning objective).

9) Retention and Transfer: How will you ensure that the training will be used upon the job? There is absolutly no use in training if they are not going to use it (we loose what we do not use).

Lesson Plan BEd.

2008-02-18T23:38:00.001-08:00

Lesson Plan M.A Education

2008-02-18T23:37:00.000-08:00

Lesson Plan MEd.

2008-02-18T23:36:00.000-08:00

Lesson Plans

Language Arts
A Penguin’s Winter Wonderland
ABC Order Me
Animal Riddles
Animated Legends and Tall Tales
Bunny Tales
Celebrating the Birthday of Johnny Appleseed ( September 26, 1774)
Creating Color Poems
Creating Moby Dick Biopoems
Creating St Patrick’s Day Rebus Stories and Poems
Creative Calendars
Creative Writing with Images
Descriptive Writing
Haiyuu Haiku (Poetry Pals)
Interpreting Lyrics with Pictures
Island of the Blue Dolphins Project
It's All About Me
Persuasive and Presidential Writing
POEtry-A Close Look at The Raven by Edgar Allan Poe
Potpourri of Poetry
Sadako and the Thousand Paper Cranes
Spring Acrostic Poetry
Vocabulary Enrichment Using Excel
Writing Raven Myths

Science
All About Bats
Animals in Camouflage
Animated Weather
Bodaciously Beautiful Butterflies take Flight
Classifying Animals
Creating a Model of the Planets
Creating Life Cycle Diagrams Using Inspiration®
Earth Day
Egyptian Mummification Process
Exploring Nutrition Using the Food Pyramid
Exploring the Galapagos
Exploring Tide Pools
Food Chain Fun
Fun with Fossils
Owl Pellet Investigation
Penguins All Around
Planets Plays
Polar Bear Adaptation
Rainforest Conservation Cards and Comics

Math
A is for Area, B is for Billion
Building and Launching Trebuchets
Collecting and Analyzing Data
Creating Multiplication Word Problems
Creating Pictographs in Excel
Flag Fractions
Fun with Fractions
Multiplication – Ancient Egyptian Style
Seeing Symmetry Around Us
Shapes and Angles all Around Us
St. Patrick's Day Math
Visual and Kinesthetic Graphing

Social Studies
Creating Land Formations
Creating Totem Poles
Designing a "Coat of Arms"
Dia de los muertos- Day of the Dead
Egyptian Geography
Egyptian Stories
Events Leading to the Revolutionary War
Flag Symbolism
Holidays Around the World
I've Been Everywhere-- A Lesson on Combining Images
Introducing Impressionism
Life in 1620 (Pilgrims)
Medieval Castle Building
Native American Petroglyphs
Taste of the States

View all Jacques' Pics Who is Jacques?

Thesis of M.A and M.Ed (Problems and Solutions)

2008-02-18T00:00:00.000-08:00

Online Links for BEd.

2008-02-10T00:17:00.001-08:00

Online Links for M.A Education

2008-02-10T00:16:00.000-08:00

Researching literature @Online Links for M.Ed

2008-02-10T00:15:00.000-08:00

Educational Technology Links

Specialized Search Engines and Directories
There are approximately zillions of specialized search engines out there, as can be seen at Search Engine Guide. The list below is a selective subset of these, chosen because they might help you find materials useful as resources in a WebQuest. All of these links lead to sites that contain specific information that may not turn up when you do a general search of the Web using Altavista, Yahoo, and other search engines and directories. For a more comprehensive list, you might also want to check the Invisible-Web site.
Directories Especially for Educators
Material appropriate for children
Yahoo! Kids Kids Click!ThinkQuest Entries Kids Search Tool Ask Jeeves for Kids
http://www.yahooligans.comhttp://www.kidsclick.orghttp://www.thinkquest.org/library/http://www.rcls.org/ksearch.htmhttp://www.askforkids.com/
School and university sites
searchedu.com
http://www.searchedu.com
Wired schools
Web66 School Registry CyberPlayGround List
http://web66.umn.edu/http://www.edu-cyberpg.com/Schools/default.asp
Multi-subject starting points
BBC Schools BBC Learning Blue Web'n EduHound Education World Schrock's Guide Marcopolo S.C.O.R.E Internet Scout FREE
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/http://www.bbc.co.uk/learning/http://www.kn.pacbell.com/wired/bluewebn/http://www.eduhound.com/http://www.education-world.com/http://school.discovery.com/schrockguide/ http://www.marcopolo-education.org/ http://www.score.k12.ca.us/http://scout.wisc.edu/http://www.free.ed.gov/sitemap.cfm (NEW)
Children's software
California Learning Resource Network
http://www.clrn.org/home/
Lesson plans
ALI Units of Practice EdHelper Lesson Plans Page
http://ali.apple.com/ali/uops.shtml http://www.edhelper.com/ http://www.lessonplanspage.com
Curriculum standards
Education World
http://www.education-world.com/standards/national/index.shtml
Info on educational issues
ERIC Search ERIC Digests
http://ericadr.piccard.csc.com/teams/Login.do NEWhttp://www.ericfacility.net/ericdigests/index/
Search Engines and Databases Not Just for Education
IFyou're looking for...
THENcheck here:
ORtype these in the location bar:
Encyclopedia entries
Encarta Wikipedia
http://encarta.msn.com/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page
Magazine articles
AJR Newslink Magazines
http://newslink.org/mag.html
Newspaper articles
AJR Newslink Newspaper Index
http://newslink.org/
Current news
Google News
http://news.google.com/
Blog Postings
Technorati
http://www.technorati.com/ NEW
Radio stations
Radio-Locator
http://www.radio-locator.com
Literature in the public domain
Google Book Search On-Line Books Page Search e-Books The Bartleby Library
http://www.books.google.com/ NEWhttp://digital.library.upenn.edu/books/ http://www.searchebooks.comhttp://www.bartleby.com/
Copyrighted books in print
Amazon Barnes and Noble
http://www.amazon.comhttp://www.barnesandnoble.com
Images
Google Image Search Pics4Learning Fagan Finder E-Bay Postcards
http://www.google.com/advanced_image_search?hl=enhttp://pics.tech4learning.com/ http://www.faganfinder.com/img/http://listings.ebay.com/aw/listings/list/category914/index.html
Images, sounds, videos of animals
Junglewalk
http://www.junglewalk.com
Live images from everywhere
EarthCam
http://www.earthcam.com/
Primary source documents
Library of Congress American Memory
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/mdbquery.html
Federal (U.S.) legislation
Thomas
http://thomas.loc.gov/
Company information
Thomas Register Industrial Quick Search
http://www.thomasregister.com/ (free membership required)http://www.industrialquicksearch.com/
Sounds
findsounds.com
http://www.findsounds.com
Pictures and information about any product of the last two centuries
E-Bay
http://www.ebay.com
Biographies
Biographical Dictionary Biography.com Biography-Center Lives
http://www.s9.com/biography/http://www.biography.com/search/http://www.biography-center.com http://www.amillionlives.com/
Maps
Perry-Castañeda Maptech MapServer (topo)
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/index.htmlhttp://mapserver.maptech.com/
Country profiles
Atlapedia Online Kiosk: Journal of Geopolitics
http://www.atlapedia.com/online/country_index.htmhttp://www.bay.k12.fl.us/pdk/kiosk/index.html
State & county profiles
US Census Dept QuickFacts
http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/index.html
Medical information
HealthCentral.com OmniMedicalSearch
http://www.healthcentral.com/home/home.cfmhttp://www.omnimedicalsearch.com/
Military information
searchmil.com
http://www.searchmil.com
Trademarks
T.E.S.S.
http://www.uspto.gov/main/trademarks.htm
Patents
U.S.Patent Office
http://www.uspto.gov/patft/index.html
TV episodes
Epguides
http://epguides.master.com/texis/master/search/mysite.html?
Movies, actors
Internet Movie Database
http://www.imdb.com/
Measurement Conversion
ConvertPlus
http://convertplus.com/en/
Shareware & freeware
VersionTracker CNet Download Tucows
http://www.versiontracker.comhttp://www.download.comhttp://www.tucows.com/
Even more search engines
Search-Engines2
http://www.search-engines-2.com/
Written by Bernie Dodge. Last updated December 23, 2006

Books
Great Books Online
http://www.bartleby.com/
Free access to books and information from Bartleby.com. Select from reference, verse, fiction, and nonfiction.

Internet Public Library
http://www.ipl.org/div/books/
The IPL Books Collection (formerly known as Online Texts) contains over 20,000 titles that can be browsed by author, by title, or by Dewey Decimal Classification.

Online Books Library
http://digital.library.upenn.edu/books/
This index includes more than 17,000 English works in various formats. All should be free for personal, noncommercial use.

Resuts M.A Education

2008-02-08T03:24:00.001-08:00

University of Education
Result of Summative Examination M.A Education, Feb.2008
Subject: Instructional Technology
Semester: Ist
Roll No.--Mid test-- Assignment--Attendance-- Summative-- Total Marks
------------(20%)-----------(18%)---------------(2%)-----------(60%)---------(100%)
3001-------17-----------------16------------------2----------------45--------------80
3002-------16-----------------17------------------2----------------52--------------87
3003-------18-----------------17------------------2----------------48--------------85
3004-------15-----------------15------------------2----------------42--------------74
3005-------17-----------------15------------------2----------------53--------------87
3006-------11-----------------15------------------2----------------51--------------79
3007-------13-----------------16------------------2----------------44--------------75
3008-------10-----------------16------------------2----------------42--------------70
3009-------15-----------------17------------------2----------------49--------------83
3010-------11-----------------16------------------2----------------36--------------65
3011-------17-----------------14------------------2----------------51---------------84
3012-------13-----------------14------------------2----------------49--------------78
3013-------15-----------------16------------------2----------------43--------------76
3014-------14-----------------15------------------2----------------51--------------82
3015-------16-----------------17------------------2----------------53--------------88
3016-------18-----------------15------------------2----------------52--------------87
3017-------13-----------------16------------------2----------------43--------------74
3018-------15-----------------13------------------2----------------53--------------83
3019-------06-----------------16------------------2----------------38--------------62
3020-------14-----------------17------------------2----------------45--------------78
3021-------16-----------------16------------------2----------------50--------------84
3022-------16-----------------16------------------2----------------54--------------88
3023-------15-----------------16------------------2----------------50--------------83
3024-------16-----------------14------------------2----------------51--------------83
3025-------16-----------------14------------------2----------------34--------------66
3026-------17-----------------16------------------2----------------47--------------82
3027-------14-----------------17------------------2----------------48--------------81
3028-------08-----------------17------------------2----------------31--------------58
3029-------18-----------------17------------------2----------------53--------------90
3030-------13-----------------15------------------2----------------52--------------82
3031-------08-----------------17------------------2----------------46--------------73
3032-------11-----------------15------------------2----------------35--------------63
3033-------17-----------------16------------------2----------------45--------------80
3034-------16-----------------16------------------2----------------53--------------87
3035-------15-----------------17------------------2----------------46--------------80
3036-------12-----------------17------------------2----------------46--------------77
3037-------15-----------------17------------------2----------------51--------------85
3038-------14-----------------16------------------2----------------51--------------83
3039-------12-----------------14------------------2----------------44--------------72
3040-------15-----------------16------------------2----------------52--------------85
3041-------15-----------------16------------------2----------------49--------------82
3042-------09-----------------17------------------2----------------47--------------75
3043-------17-----------------17------------------2----------------55--------------91
3044-------16-----------------17------------------2----------------53--------------88
3045-------15-----------------15------------------2----------------44--------------76
3046-------14-----------------17------------------2----------------42--------------75
3047-------11-----------------14------------------2----------------44---------------71
3048-------11-----------------14------------------2----------------49--------------76
3049------------------------------------Absent----------------------------------------
3050-------14-----------------15------------------2----------------54--------------85
3051-------12-----------------17------------------2----------------46--------------77
3052-------15-----------------17------------------2----------------33--------------67
3053-------14-----------------15------------------2----------------36--------------67
3054-------12-----------------17------------------2----------------34--------------65
3055-------11-----------------15------------------2----------------49--------------77
3056-------09-----------------13------------------2----------------48--------------72
3057-------04-----------------00------------------2--------------Absent-----------06
3058-------10-----------------00------------------2--------------Absent-----------12
3059-------08-----------------16------------------2----------------47--------------73

Results MEd.

2008-02-08T03:23:00.000-08:00

Results BEd.

2008-02-08T03:20:00.000-08:00

University of Education
Summative Examination Bed. Feb.2008
Subject: Teaching Profession Course Code: 405
Class: Section F (Male) Semester: Ist

Roll No.--Mid test-- Assignment--Attendance-- Summative-- Total Marks
------------(20%)-----------(18%)---------------(2%)-----------(60%)---------(100%)
1 ------------17-------------- 17-- ---------------2-------------- 54--------------- -90
2------------ 14-------------- 15----------------- 2-------------- 46--------------- -77
3 ------------16---------------17-----------------2---------------50----------------85
4------------17----------------13-----------------2---------------46----------------78
5------------12---------------15------------------2---------------38----------------67
6------------17----------------16-----------------2---------------55----------------90
7-------------15---------------15-----------------2---------------50----------------82
8------------14----------------14-----------------2---------------39----------------69
9-------------15---------------17-----------------2---------------53----------------87
10------------17---------------14-----------------2---------------51----------------84
11------------16 --------------16-----------------2---------------49----------------83
12------------13---------------15-----------------2---------------30----------------81
13------------12---------------14-----------------2---------------50----------------78
14------------19---------------15-----------------2 ---------------53----------------89
15 ------------17---------------16-----------------2---------------54----------------89
16------------17---------------17-----------------2---------------53-----------------89
17-------------13--------------16-----------------2----------------54----------------85
18------------14---------------15-----------------2---------------46-----------------77
19------------16---------------17-----------------2----------------51----------------86
20 -----------------------------------------ABSENT-- ----------------------------------
21-------------16--------------15-----------------2----------------54----------------87
22-------------13--------------17-----------------2---------------50-----------------82
23-------------12--------------16-----------------2----------------51----------------81
24-------------17--------------17-----------------2----------------54----------------90
25-------------16--------------14-----------------2----------------51----------------83
26 -------------15--------------15-----------------2---------------47----------------79
27-------------17---------------14----------------2----------------48----------------81
28-------------14---------------14----------------2----------------44----------------74
29-------------10--------------15-----------------2----------------48----------------75
30-------------17--------------16-----------------2----------------54----------------89
31-------------08---------------16----------------2----------------45----------------71
32-------------14--------------15-----------------2----------------52----------------83
33-------------13---------------14----------------2-----------------48---------------77
34--------------4---------------16----------------2-----------------50----------------72
35-------------17---------------14--------- -------2----------------51----------------84
36--------------------------------------------ABSENT-----------------------------------
37--------------16--------------15----------------2-----------------48----------------81
38--------------15--------------16----------------2-----------------46----------------79
39--------------16--------------14----------------2-----------------52----------------84
40--------------15--------------14----------------2-----------------48----------------79
41--------------16--------------15----------------2-----------------52----------------85
42--------------------------------------------ABSENT-----------------------------------

Sample Question Papers for M.A Education & MEd.

2008-02-07T02:09:00.000-08:00

Paper: Instructional Technology Time: 0.20 hr Class: M.A Education (Semester I)

Total Marks: 18 Name: Roll. No.
(Objective Portion)
Q.No.1 Encircle the correct option (18×1)
A) A complex, integrated process involving people, procedure, ideas, devices for analyzing problems and devising solutions to these problems in learning is called
(i) Information Technology (ii) Educational Technology
(iii) Web Hosting (iv) Teacher Training
B) An established procedure or series of steps for accomplishing an educational goal is known as
(i) System (ii) Objective
(iii) Infrastructure (iv) System monitoring
C) We can judge the success of Educational Technology through
(i) Popularity (ii) Effectiveness and Efficiency
(iii) Both (i) & (ii) (iv) Curriculum
D) The statement that "A systematic application of the scientific knowledge about teaching and learning and conditions of learning to improve the efficiency of learning" was given by
(i) Robert A Cox (ii) E.E Haddon
(iii)Unwind (iv) G.P.M Ceith
E) The statement that "Theory or Practice concerned with design and use of message which controls the learning process is called educational Technology" was given by
(i) Robert A Cox (ii) E.E Haddon
(iii)Unwind (iv) Ship K Mitra
F) The number of major concepts which are used in Instructional Design are
(i) Ten (ii) Three
(iii) Five (iv) Four
G) The branch of Educational Technology which studies the nature and structure of behavior of the organism by focusing that "Learning is the modification of the behavior through activities and experiences" is called
(i) Instructional Design (ii) Behavioral Technology
(iii) Teaching Technology (iv) Instructional Technology
H) The systematic actions which induce learning are known as
(i) Technology (ii) Instruction
(iii) Cybernetics (iv) System analysis
I) Instructional Technology plays its role to achieve social goals of
(i) Cultural Transmission (ii) Individual growth
(iii)Democratic Process (iv) All the above three
J) The domains of Instructional objectives are
(i) Five (ii) Three
(iii)Four (iv) Eight
K) The word communication is derived from
(i) English (ii) French
(iii)Latin (iv) Greek
L) How many qualities a good message has
(i) Six (ii) Seven
(iii)Eight (iv) Three
M) Teacher should have style in the class room
(i) Passive (ii) Assertive & Supportive
(iii) Aggressive (iv) Passive & Aggressive
N) We can classify the teaching aids in the classroom in to
(i)Projected & Graphic Aids (ii) Non-Projected and Models
(iii) Projected & Non-Projected (iv) Projected & Simulated
O) According to Robb we can divide the whole Instructional system in to
(i) Three Phases (ii) Four Phases
(iii) Six Phases (iv) Two Phases
P) The Practice of arranging Media is called
(i) Model (ii) Instructional Design
(iii) Graphic Design (iv) Simulation
Q) When we design an Instructional Model, we consider
(i) Four Steps (ii) Two Steps
(iii) Nine Steps (iv) Five Steps
R) The theories of learning can be categorized mainly as
(i) Pavlov & Thorndike (ii) S-R & S-O-R
(iii) Cognitive and S-R (iv) S-R, S-O-R & Cognitive

Paper: Instructional Technology Time: 1.40 hr
Class: M.A Education (Semester I) Total Marks: 42
Q.No.2 Give Short answer to the following (6×3)
(I) Draw the Model of Educational Technology.
(II) What are parts of an Educational System?
Name any two factors effecting Educational Technology.
(IV) Give any two misunderstandings about Instructional Technology.
(V) Mention any three characteristics of Instructional Technology.
(VI) What are components of psychomotor domain, give names only.
(Descriptive Portion)
Note: Attempt any two questions (12×2)
Q.No.3 What is Instructional Design, How we can apply it in a class room? Explain with the help of any model of Instructional Design.
Q.No.4 Define learning, discuss any one theory each from S-R and S-O-R theories of learning with their practical impacts.
Q.No.5 What is system approach? How you can apply system approach in your class room. Discuss in detail.
Q.No.4 What is Reinforcement? Discuss how cognitive theory is different from theories of Reinforcement?

Sample Question Papers for B.Ed

2008-02-06T01:41:00.000-08:00

Q.1 Write the names of early nations of Subcontinent? In Subcontinent following nations are lining from ancient period. · The Kols · The Dravidians · The Indo-Aryans · The Sakas · The Mongoloid · The Huns · The Iranians · The Greeks · The Muslims · The Europeans Q.2 Write the four characteristics of Indus Valley Civilization? · This Urban Civilization spread over a vast geographical region from the high mountains of Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Makran, Sindh and Gujarat (India). · Large cities and smaller towns grew up along the major trade routes as administrative and ritual centers. · This civilization evolved from local cultures, which has roots extending back to the earliest Neolithic farming dating in Pakistan and India to around 6500BC. · Urban character of the Indus Valley Civilization around 2600.B.C. This civilization was organized around cities and towns. Q.3 Where is Mohenjo-daro and Harappa and writes the meaning of both? · Mohenjo-Daro means the city of dead mound. It is situated in Sindh in Pakistan. · Harappa means the city of golden gates. It is situated in Sahiwal in Punjab. Q.4 Who were ARYANS and which was their real homeland? · The Aryans were a long-headed race, of tall stature, with narrow noses and a fair complexion. Their purest representatives are found today mainly in Kashmir, the Punjab and Rajputana. · The real homeland of Aryans was Central Asia. Q.5 Write the names of Rivers in Subcontinent? · Kabul Jhelum Chenab Ravi · Indus Beas Sutlej Q.6 Write the four castes of Hindus? These are four castes of Hindus. · Brahmans · Khatri · Vaishya · Sudra Q.7 Write the names of religious books of Hindus and Muslims? There are four religious books of Hindus. · Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharan Veda. There are following books of Muslims. · Holy Quran · Bibal · Turat · Zaboor Q.8 Write a short note on Harappa and Mohenjo-daro? · Mohenjo-daro (The Mound of the dead) is the largest city of of Indus Valley Civilization. It was flourished between 2600 to 1900 BC.It was discovered and excavated in 1900.It is the first oldest city in the Subcontinent and now situated in Sindh, Pakistan. · Harappa It was the next big city of Indus Valley Civilization according to S.M. Vehller.Its old name was Hariupea means the city of golden gates. It is situated near the Sahiwal in Punjab and 85 km from Lahore. Sir Johan Marshal excavated here. Q.9 What was the duration of Muslims rulers in Subcontinent? · The Muslims rules at Subcontinent from 712 to 1857. Q.10 When Indian came into control in British Government and why? · The East India Company came into being in 1600 A.D and by the subsequent acquisitions of many commercial privileges from the emperors, it had acquired strength in the middle of the eighteenth century. They came for trade but became the ruler of the Subcontinent. Q.11 Write down the effects of East India Company? There are following effects of East India Company. · Destroy Muslim Culture and Heritage. They struggled to destroy the Muslim religion. · They destroy the Educational system of Muslims. · They gave importance to Hindus in jobs and neglect the Muslims. · English Language became the Language of Education instead of Persian. · They destroy the Bengal Industry of cloth. Q.12 When Minto-Marly reforms held? Point out important events from 1857-1947? · Minto-Marly reforms held in 1909. · 1857 War of Independence. · 1858 Government of India Act. · 1861 Sir Syed Pamphlet “Reasons of Rebellions” · 1892 Indian Legislature Act. · 1919 Indian Act was revived. · In 1930-31-32 Round Table Conferences. · In 1935 Indian Government Act was passed. · In 1940, Muslims were united on one demand of Pakistan. Krips commission, suggestions, Lord Wayel plan, 1946 election, Muslim Leagues victory, Red Clif award, Boundary Commission and Independence of India in two countries. Q.13 Who was the first and present Governor General and Prime Minister of Pakistan? · The first GN was Quaid-I-Azam and PM was Liaqat Ali Khan · The present GN is General Peraiz Musharraf and PM is Shuqat Azaz Q.14 How many Constitutions have been formulated in Pakistan also write the years? · Three Constitutions have been formulated in Pakistan. · First Constitution of 1956 · Second Constitution of 1962 · Third Constitution of 1973 Q.15 Write down the five statements of Constitutions of 1973? · The President is Muslim and elected by the join session of NA and Senate. · NA elects the PM. · The Constitution of 1973 provided a bicameral legisture, the NA and Senate. · The NA consists of 207 Muslim members. · The Supreme Court shall consists of Chief Justice and other Judges whose number shall be determined by the President. Q.16 When General Parvaiz Musharraf became the President of Pakistan and why? · General Peraiz came into power after an army coup against Nawaz Sharief. 9/11 incidents happened in his age, he has to change Afghan policy, enhance economic growth and advance Kashmir. Q.17 Write the meanings of Civics and from which language it is derived? · Civics is derived from Latin language. It is a combination of two words civis and civitas. Civics means citizen and civitas means city and citizen state. So Civics means discuss that matters which are related to citizen and citizen state. Q.18 Define Civics? Civics is that useful branch of human knowledge, which deals with everything social, intellectual, economic, political and even religious aspect relating to citizens past, present and future local, national and human. Q.19 Define Rights? According to T.H.Green. “Right is a that tool which is considered necessary for general benefit.” Q.20 Write the kinds of rights? · There are three basics kinds of Rights. · Moral Right · Legal Right · Social Right Q.21 What is meant by Democracy? According to Dictionary definition democracy is “Government by the people, exercised either directly or through elected representatives”. Q.22 Write the characteristics of Islamic Democratic society? Following are the characteristic of an Islamic Democratic Society. · Tauheed (Sovereignty of God) · Prophet hood (obedience to Muhammad PBUM) · Justice, equity, place of non-Muslims · Brotherhood and advisory system · Human Right, sacrifice for others. Q.23 What is the meaning of Geography and from which language it is derived? · According to the Wikipedia “Geography derived from Greek words Ge or Gaea, both meaning Earth and Graphein meaning to describe or to write or to map”. Q.24 Define the term Geography? · “Geography is the study of Earths surface and its related physical, biological and cultural features”. Q.25 Write four kinds of maps? · Physical Map · World Map · Topographical Map · Population Map Q.26 What is meant by map reading? · Map reading is a Geographical Skill. Through map reading we know the scale, longitude and latitude, symbols of map and kinds of map etc. Q.27 Write a short note on Agriculture of Pakistan? · Agriculture sector is the backbone of Pakistan’s economy. Pakistans 80% of Population is associated with the Agriculture for their livelihood variety of crops is cultivated in Pakistan. Those crops which are cultivated before the beginning of winter season and harvested in early summer are known as Rabi Crops. They include wheat, barly, grams, oilseeds, pulses etc. Those crops which are grown in the beginning of summer and harvested in early winter are called as Kharif Crops. These include rice, sugercane, millets, maize, cotton etc. Q.28 Write a note on minerals of Pakistan? · Pakistan possesses mineral resources in abundance. Pakistan has sufficient deposits of non-metallic minerals, including Rock Salt, Gypsum, China Clay, Limestone, Marable, Kaoline and Granite. However Pakistan is deficient in Metallic minerals, which are found in low quantity. Metallic minerals, which are found in Pakistan, are Iron, Copper, Lead, Bauxite Gold, Magnesite, Tungsten and Zinc. Q.29 What is longitude and latitude? · Longitude is the angular distance east or west from north-south line that passes through Greenwich, England, to particular location. · Latitude is angular distance north or south from equator to a particular location. Q.30 Write kinds of Geography? · There are two important kinds of Geography. · Physical Geography relates with physical features of earth. · Human Geography relates with human interaction with their environment. Q.31 Define inductive and deductive method? · INDUCTIVE METHOD: Here the child is enabled to arrive at general conclusions, establish laws or formulate generalizations through the observations of particular facts, and concrete examples. · DEDUCTIVE METHOD: It is the opposite of the inductive approach. Here learner proceeds from general to particular, abstract to concrete and formula to examples. Q.32 What is lecture method? · It is oldest method of teaching. The lecture method is called teacher centred and one-way communication. Socrates used this method and that it is chief method of teaching. Its use is more effective when teacher use appropriate physical environment and himself use command on language, other verbal and non-verbal sources and students participation. Q.33 Write down the five merits of problem solving method? MERITS: · Students learn to propose and structure problem. · They do their own learning under the guidance of their teacher. · They learn to formulate hypotheses. · This approach trains them to solve problems in everyday life. · They get trained in scientific method by developing scientific attitude and scientific temper. Q.34 Write two merits and demerits of project method? MERITS · Purpose or reasons for learning are clarified. · Interest in learning increased. DEMERITS: · Project identification and planning is very difficult task.. · All subject and curriculum cannot be covered. Q.35 What is discussion method? · A process of talking about a topic in a group in a conversation way. Any contributions to the conversation are accepted from anyone involved in the discussion and ideas can emerge and evolve in ways, which have not been predetermined by the teacher. Q.36 Write the characteristics of role-play? · Role-play is a technique used for developing ihe communicative skill of the learners. · A small group of participants acts out a real-life situation in front of a larger group. · Participants make up their parts as they act. Q.37 What is team teaching? · David Warwick (1971) defines team teaching as “a form of organization in which individual teachers decide to pool resources, interests and expertise in order to devise and implement a scheme of work suitable to the needs of their pupil and the facilities of their schools.” Q.38 What is recapitulation? · When the students should note down the blackboard summary. The blackboard summary must be removed before asking the recapitulation questions. The purpose of these questions is to practice the student learning and evaluate the student performance. Q.39 What is microteaching? · Micro-teaching is an instructional activity used in training and evaluating classroom teachers. Teachers-in-training are given specific guidelines for developing one or more short lessons which are delivered in front of an audience. Micro-teaching sessions are usually videotaped so that the performance of the teachers-in-training can be closely examined. Q.40 Write a short note on Audio visual aids? · Audiovisual aids are defined as any device used to aid in the communication of an idea. From the definition, virtually anything can be used as an aid, providing it successfully communicates the idea or information for which it is designed, we not only used the term “Audiovisual Aids”, and “Instructional Aids”, “Teaching Aids” “Audio Aids”, “Visual Aids” as well. Q.41 Write advantages of Homework? · Homework refers to assignments students are given that are to be completed during their time away from the classroom. Homework is both an assessment technique and an instructional method. As an instructural method it can involve activities for independent study such as assigning questions, completing reports, and preparing for presentations. As an assessment technique, it can be used to evaluate student performance through the use of rating scales, checklists, or anecdotal records. Q.42 Write down the names of big cities of Sindh? · Big Cities of Sindh are Karachi, Hyderabad, Sakhur and Larkana. Q.43 Write down the names of countries, which are situated in Subcontinent? · Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives and Sri Lanka. Q.44 Which kinds of nations were living in Sindh civilization? · The Kols · The Dravidians · The Indo-Aryans · The Sakas · The Mongoloid · The Huns · The Iranians · The Greeks · The Muslims · The Europeans Q.45 Who was Dravidians? · Dravidians were the creator of Sindh civilization. They are distinguished physically by their short stature. Their complexion is very dark, approaching black, hair plentiful, eyes dark, head long and nose very broad, but not so as to make the face appear flat. Q.46 Write down the causes of fall of Mughals? · Akbars Religious Policy · Aurangzeb religious Policy · Aurangzeb Daccan Policy · Deterioration in Character of Kings · Intellectual Bankruptcy · Corruption in the Mughal Administration · Rise of British power in India Q.47 Write a note on Geography of Indo-Pakistan? · Subcontinent now consists of Countries: Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives and Sri Lanka.In 1947 Subcontinent was diided into independent countries, Pakistan and Bharat. In 1971 Bangladesh was divided from Pakistan. · This subcontinent covers about area of 4480000 kilometers. It is part of Asian continent. It covers to present Asia and 40% population of Asia. · Pakistan and India form a vast subcontinent. It is triangular in shape. On the north it is bounded by the Himalayan Range, which cuts it off from the rest of Asia. In its east is the Bay of Bengal, and in the west the Arabian Sea. On the southern side of it flows the Indian Ocean Q.48 Who were creators of Sindh civilization? · Dravidians were the creator of Sindh ciilization. They are distinguished physically by their short stature. Their complexion is very dark, approaching black, hair plentiful, eyes dark, head long and nose very broad, but not so as to make the face appear flat. Q.49 Write down the names of Holy books of Hindus? · There are four Holy Books of Hindus. · Rig Veda · Sama Veda · Yajur Veda · Atharvan Veda Q.50 What is Ghandhara Civilization? · Ghandhara is in the area of Pakistan. It consists two main cities Pusklawati and Texashela.This area is very rich heritage of Budha culture. Ghandhara Art is very famous.